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<DIV class=prerendered><A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/118902505/home"
target=_top><FONT size=2>Reviews in Aquaculture</FONT></A> <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/122196681/issue"
target=_top><FONT size=2>Volume 1, Issue 1</FONT></A><FONT size=2>, Pages
58-66 </FONT><FONT size=2>10 Feb 2009</FONT></DIV>
<DIV class=prerendered>
<DIV class=doi-title><FONT size=2>DOI <SPAN
class=doi>10.1111/j.1753-5131.2008.01003.x</SPAN></FONT> </DIV></DIV>
<DIV class=article xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<DIV><FONT size=2></FONT> </DIV>
<DIV class=header>
<DIV class=titlegroup>
<DIV class=title-document><STRONG>Methods for reducing stressors and
maintaining water quality associated with live fish transport in tanks: a
review of the basics</STRONG></DIV></DIV>
<DIV class=author-info><SPAN class=name><SPAN class=forenames>Todd
S.</SPAN> <SPAN class=surname>Harmon</SPAN></SPAN>
<DIV class=addresses><SPAN class=correspondence-label> </SPAN>Walt
Disney World, Animal Programs, PO Box 10 000, Lake Buena Vista, FL 32830,
USA.<BR>Email: <A class=externallink
href="mailto:todd.s.harmon@disney.com"><FONT
color=#336699>todd.s.harmon@disney.com</FONT></A></DIV></DIV>
<DIV class=header-footnotes><FONT color=#336699></FONT></DIV>
<DIV class=bpg40copyright><FONT size=2></FONT> </DIV></DIV>
<DIV class=abstract-content id=abstract>
<DIV class=summary>
<DIV class=header_divide>
<H1 class=abstract-title id=h1><FONT size=4>ABSTRACT</FONT></H1></DIV>
<P class=para>Fish culture operations, public aquariums, fish biologists
and aquatic researchers often have the need to transport live fish. These
fish are frequently transported in live-haul boxes by ground
transportation. Activities involved with transporting fish, such as
handling, confinement and exposure to sub-optimal water quality, have the
potential to create physiological changes in the fish because of increased
stress. Because of the affiliation between stress and fish health, it is
important to minimize the amount of potential stressors as well as to
minimize the duration of exposure to stressors during these procedures.
Furthermore, understanding aberrant environmental conditions and how they
affect fish often leads to establishing new protocols that reduce stress.
Increased survival rates and the arrival of healthy fish are dependent on
transport and on the pre-handling and post-handling procedures associated
with fish-hauling operations.</P></DIV></DIV>
<DIV class=dates>
<P class=para><FONT size=4>Introduction</FONT></P></DIV>
<DIV class=body-content>
<DIV class=body-content id=s1>
<DIV class=subsection-level1 id=ss1>
<P class=para>The greatest challenge with any live-fish transport is to
minimize the amount of stress placed on the fish. <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b3"><FONT
color=#336699>Barton (1997)</FONT></A> noted various definitions of stress
and highlighted the difficulties of defining stress so that it suits all
disciplines. As stress relates to transporting fish, the definition given
by <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b18"><FONT
color=#336699>Francis-Floyd (2002)</FONT></A> is practical and is defined
as 'a condition in which an animal cannot maintain a normal physiological
state because of various factors adversely affecting its well-being'.
Stress in fish can be caused by biological, chemical or physical
conditions. Stress can also play a major role in the susceptibility of
fish to disease (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b42"><FONT
color=#336699>Winton 2001</FONT></A>). Transported fish are often exposed
to multiple stressors within a short duration. Potential stressors
associated with transporting fish include inappropriate hauling densities
(<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b30"><FONT
color=#336699>Piper <SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN>
1982</FONT></A>), tank confinement (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b16"><FONT
color=#336699>Davis & Parker 1986</FONT></A>), physical handling (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b22"><FONT
color=#336699>Maule <SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN>
1988</FONT></A>; <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b11"><FONT
color=#336699>Cech <SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN>
1996</FONT></A>), unfavourable water quality (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b41"><FONT
color=#336699>Weirich & Tomasso 1991</FONT></A>; <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b9"><FONT
color=#336699>Carmichael <SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN>
1992</FONT></A>) and conditioning fish to a new environment (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b8"><FONT
color=#336699>Carmichael <SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN>
1984</FONT></A>; <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b7"><FONT
color=#336699>Brick & Cech 2002</FONT></A>). Transport-associated
mortality might be the result of one severe stressor, several mild
stressors or infectious disease. Moreover, the exact impact of the stress
depends on the severity and duration of the stress, as well as the health
of the fish (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b28"><FONT
color=#336699>Noga 2000</FONT></A>). Even if fish are carefully handled
and transported, a group of mild stressors might act together and cause
mortality (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b10"><FONT
color=#336699>Carmichael <SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN>
2001</FONT></A>).</P>
<P class=para>Internal physiological mechanisms responsible for adapting
to a stressor include nervous, immunological and hormonal mechanisms (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b34"><FONT
color=#336699>Selye 1973</FONT></A>). However, there is a metabolic cost
associated with this adaptation, which includes diverting energy from
normal metabolic functions to the functions that are used to cope with the
stress (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b4"><FONT
color=#336699>Barton & Iwama 1991</FONT></A>). These responses are
often categorized as primary, secondary and tertiary stress responses. The
primary response is the release of hormones into the circulatory system,
which then trigger secondary responses that can include increases in heart
rate, gill blood flows and metabolic rate, as well as decreases in plasma
chloride, sodium and potassium (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b31"><FONT
color=#336699>Portz <SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN>
2006</FONT></A>). Tertiary responses might include disease resistance,
altered behaviour, reduced growth rate, and reproductive capacity, thermal
tolerance and tolerance to hypoxia (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b4"><FONT
color=#336699>Barton & Iwama 1991</FONT></A>). Although fish have the
ability to respond physiologically to stress, these response actions can
be forced beyond their normal limits, thus becoming detrimental to the
fish (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b4"><FONT
color=#336699>Barton & Iwama 1991</FONT></A>). <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b5"><FONT
color=#336699>Barton and Schreck (1987)</FONT></A> estimated the metabolic
cost of acute stress in juvenile steelhead <SPAN
class=i><EM>Oncorhynchus mykiss</EM></SPAN> (Walbaum) to be
approximately one-quarter of the energy available within the scope for
activity.</P>
<P class=para>Stressors that affect fish can be categorized into acute
(short-term) or chronic (long-term) stressors (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b15"><FONT
color=#336699>Davis 2006</FONT></A>). Acute stressors include handling,
confinement, abrupt changes in water quality and improper acclimation, and
chronic stressors include extended periods of poor water quality, improper
stocking densities and improper diets. Severe stress might result in
immediate mortality, presumably through ion loss (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b25"><FONT
color=#336699>McDonald & Milligan 1997</FONT></A>), whereas chronic
stress often results in a severely compromised immune function and/or a
decrease in energy stores (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b31"><FONT
color=#336699>Portz <SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN>
2006</FONT></A>). An immunosuppressed fish allows pathogens to initiate a
disease that would otherwise normally be resisted by the fish (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b40"><FONT
color=#336699>Wedemeyer 1997</FONT></A>). 'Delayed mortality syndrome' and
'hauling loss' are terms used to reference fish mortality that is
associated with transport and conditioning to a new environment. Delayed
mortality might occur days or even weeks after transport depending on the
underlying cause and severity. The direct cause of delayed mortality has
not been established conclusively (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b4"><FONT
color=#336699>Barton & Iwama 1991</FONT></A>; <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b28"><FONT
color=#336699>Noga 2000</FONT></A>), but is thought to be at least
partially a result of blood electrolyte imbalances resulting from osmotic
flux (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b39"><FONT
color=#336699>Wedemeyer 1996</FONT></A>). <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b24"><FONT
color=#336699>Mazic <SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN>
(1991)</FONT></A> found no immediate mortality during the transport of
striped bass <SPAN class=i><EM>Morone saxatilis</EM></SPAN> (Walbaum), but
losses started 3 h after transport and lasted for 4 weeks,
eventually reaching 100% mortality.</P>
<P class=para>Although many freshwater transport protocols might be
similar, it is worthwhile to note differences among marine and freshwater
species, including osmoregulatory differences (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b27"><FONT
color=#336699>Moyle & Cech 1988</FONT></A>) and sensitivity to certain
water-quality parameters. It must also be noted that acceptable
water-quality parameters might even differ within a species depending on
life stage, health and previous holding conditions. However, with all
species, maintaining proper water quality during transport is a vital
component in reducing physiological stress.</P>
<P class=para>Many sources of stress during transport might be
unavoidable. However, stress might be minimized by following good
transport procedures. Proper design and operation of the transport
container can reduce many fish stressors. Moreover, proper water quality
is important for maintaining fish health and reducing stress throughout
transport as well as proper tempering into the receiving water. A review
of hauling recommendations for various species is listed in <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#t1"><FONT
color=#336699>Table 1</FONT></A>. This paper will review
water-quality parameters that should be monitored during transport as well
as handling and acclimation recommendations before and after transport.
This paper will focus on live transport in transport containers and will
not depict the transport of fish in plastic bags, which often occurs in
the ornamental industry. However, some of the stressors encountered and
their effects might be similar.</P><A class=invisible-anchor name=t1><FONT
color=#336699> </FONT></A> <SPAN id=t1_legend_span><SPAN
class=number><SPAN class=b>Table 1</SPAN> </SPAN> Hauling
recommendations for various species</SPAN>
<DIV class=table id=t1>
<DIV align=center>
<TABLE>
<TBODY>
<TR vAlign=bottom>
<TD>
<HR noShade SIZE=2>
</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD align=middle>
<TABLE class=data-table>
<TBODY>
<TR>
<TH vAlign=bottom align=left>Species</TH>
<TH vAlign=bottom align=middle>Pre-haul</TH>
<TH vAlign=bottom align=middle>Hauling tank</TH>
<TH vAlign=bottom align=middle>Post-haul</TH>
<TH vAlign=bottom align=middle>Reference</TH></TR>
<TR>
<TD colSpan=5>
<HR SIZE=1>
</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>American shad<BR><SPAN
class=i><EM>Dorosoma penetrance</EM></SPAN></TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left><EM></EM></TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>High density to allow for
schooling</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>13–15°C 0.5% salt water</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left><A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b2">Backman
and Ross (1990)</A> </TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>Brook trout/lake trout<BR><SPAN
class=i><EM>Salvelinus</EM></SPAN> spp.</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left></TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>Density:
69–170 g L<SUP><NOBR>−1</NOBR></SUP><BR>0.1 g L<SUP><NOBR>−1</NOBR></SUP>
of NaHCO<SUB><NOBR>3</NOBR></SUB> and
CaCl<SUB><NOBR>2</NOBR></SUB> 6–7°C</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left></TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left><A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b26">McDonald
<SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN> (1993)</A> </TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>Delta smelt<BR><SPAN
class=i><EM>Hypomesus transpacificus</EM></SPAN></TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left><EM></EM></TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>0.8% NaCl<BR>NovAqua</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left></TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left><A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b36">Swanson
<SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN> (1996)</A> </TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>Freshwater drum<BR><SPAN
class=i><EM>Aplodinotus grunniens</EM></SPAN></TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left><EM></EM></TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>0.5% NaCl<BR>Density:
60 g L<SUP><NOBR>−1</NOBR></SUP></TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left></TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left><A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b20">Johnson
and Metcalf (1982)</A> </TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>Hybrid striped bass<BR><SPAN
class=i><EM>Morone chrysops</EM></SPAN>♀<SPAN
class=i><EM> </EM></SPAN>×<SPAN class=i><EM>Morone
saxatilis</EM></SPAN>♂</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>MS-222
50 mg L<SUP><NOBR>−1</NOBR></SUP></TD>
<TD vAlign=top
align=left>25 mg L<SUP><NOBR>−1</NOBR></SUP>
MS-222<BR>10 g L<SUP><NOBR>−1</NOBR></SUP> NaCl</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left></TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left><A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b38">Tomasso
<SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN> (1980)</A> </TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>Largemouth bass<BR><SPAN
class=i><EM>Micropterus salmoides</EM></SPAN></TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>MS-222
50 mg L<SUP><NOBR>−1</NOBR></SUP><BR>Fasted
72 h<BR>Copper sulfate
10 mg L<SUP><NOBR>−1</NOBR></SUP>*</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>Density:
180 g L<SUP><NOBR>−1</NOBR></SUP><BR>Temperature
16°C<BR>25 mg L<SUP><NOBR>−1</NOBR></SUP>
MS-222<BR>Salt near isotonic to fish</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>Acclimate in salts similar to fish
plasma<BR>Copper sulfate
10 mg L<SUP><NOBR>−1</NOBR></SUP>*</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left><A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b8">Carmichael
<SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN> (1984)</A> </TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>Red drum<BR><SPAN
class=i><EM>Sciaenops ocellatus</EM></SPAN></TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>MS-222
80 mg L<SUP><NOBR>−1</NOBR></SUP></TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left></TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left></TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left><A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b32">Robertson
<SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN> (1988)</A> </TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>Striped bass<BR><SPAN class=i><EM>M.
saxatilis</EM></SPAN></TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left><EM></EM></TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>1.0% NaCl<BR>Temperature 12°C</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>1.0% NaCl</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left><A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b24">Mazic
<SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN> (1991)</A> </TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>Striped bass<BR><SPAN class=i><EM>M.
saxatilis</EM></SPAN></TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left><EM></EM></TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>0.8–1.2% NaCl<BR>Temperature
<18.3°C<BR>At 12.8–18.3°C use
3–5 mg L<SUP><NOBR>−1</NOBR></SUP> MS-222 on fish
>76.2 cm</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left></TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left><A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b43">Yeager
<SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN> (1990</A>)</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>Tiger muskellunge<BR>F1 hybrid
♀<SPAN class=i><EM>Esox masquinongy </EM></SPAN>×<SPAN
class=i><EM> </EM></SPAN>♂<SPAN class=i><EM>Esox
lucius</EM></SPAN></TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left><EM></EM></TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>Density up to
135 g L<SUP><NOBR>−1</NOBR></SUP></TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left><10°C abrupt temperature
change</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left><A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b21">Mather
<SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN> (1986)</A> </TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>Walleye<BR><SPAN
class=i><EM>Stizostedion vitreum</EM></SPAN></TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left><EM></EM></TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left><EM></EM></TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>0.5% NaCl recovery water</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left><A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b6">Barton
and Zitzow (1995)</A> </TD></TR>
<TR vAlign=bottom>
<TD colSpan=5>
<HR SIZE=1>
</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=bottom align=left colSpan=5>*One hour bath per day
for 10 days.</TD></TR></TBODY></TABLE></TD></TR>
<TR vAlign=bottom>
<TD><FONT size=2></FONT></TD></TR></TBODY></TABLE></DIV></DIV></DIV>
<DIV class=subsection-level1 id=ss2><A class=invisible-anchor
name=h4><FONT color=#336699> </FONT></A><FONT size=4>Osmoregulatory
stress</FONT>
<P class=para>The immediate mortality associated with transport stress is
presumably blood ion disturbances (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b25"><FONT
color=#336699>McDonald & Milligan 1997</FONT></A>). Marine bony fishes
must drink large amounts of seawater to prevent dehydration because of the
movement of water from their body into the surrounding seawater
environment as a result of their hypotonic condition (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b27"><FONT
color=#336699>Moyle & Cech 1988</FONT></A>). Conversely, freshwater
fish are hypertonic, therefore gaining water and losing electrolytes.
During excitement and in stressful conditions (which typically occur in
transport), epinephrine (adrenaline) is released into the bloodstream,
thus affecting the permeability of water across the gill epithelia in fish
(<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b27"><FONT
color=#336699>Moyle & Cech 1988</FONT></A>). This increases the water
gain and blood ion loss in freshwater fish and increases the loss of water
and ion influx in marine fish, resulting in a disturbance of
osmoregulatory homeostasis (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b31"><FONT
color=#336699>Portz <SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN>
2006</FONT></A>). Because of these conditions, a general procedure for
transporting many freshwater fish is to add salts to their transport
water. Many studies have documented the advantages of using salt during
and after the transport of various species (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b12"><FONT
color=#336699>Collins & Hulsey 1963</FONT></A>; <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b38"><FONT
color=#336699>Tomasso <SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN>
1980</FONT></A>; <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b20"><FONT
color=#336699>Johnson & Metcalf 1982</FONT></A>; <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b8"><FONT
color=#336699>Carmichael <SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN>
1984</FONT></A>; <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b24"><FONT
color=#336699>Mazic <SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN>
1991</FONT></A>; <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b6"><FONT
color=#336699>Barton & Zitzow 1995</FONT></A>; <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b11"><FONT
color=#336699>Cech <SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN>
1996</FONT></A>; <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b36"><FONT
color=#336699>Swanson <SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN>
1996</FONT></A>). In freshwater, salt (NaCl) has the potential to
alleviate or reduce osmoregulatory dysfunction by decreasing the gradient
between the water and the fish blood (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b24"><FONT
color=#336699>Mazic <SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN>
1991</FONT></A>). Isotonic conditions for freshwater fish are
approximately one-third the salt concentration of seawater (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b27"><FONT
color=#336699>Moyle & Cech 1988</FONT></A>). Most of the studies
listed above used 5–10‰ salt solutions in their hauling experiments
(freshwater fish). <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b23"><FONT
color=#336699>Mazeaud <SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN>
(1977)</FONT></A> also stated that marine fish stop drinking when stressed
as a result of a gastric muscular contraction induced by catecholamine.
Catecholamine is considered to be a hormone that is released under
stressful situations in an attempt to adapt to or avoid the stressor (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b39"><FONT
color=#336699>Wedemeyer 1996</FONT></A>).</P></DIV><A
class=invisible-anchor name=ss3><FONT color=#336699> </FONT></A><FONT
size=4>Dissolved oxygen</FONT>
<DIV class=subsection-level1 id=ss3>
<P class=para>Dissolved oxygen (DO) is often the single most limiting
factor in any fish-holding system. Proper DO must be maintained throughout
transport. Ideally, DO should be maintained at or near 100% saturation
throughout transport. The solubility of DO is dependent on water
temperature, gas composition, salinity and total pressure. The solubility
of oxygen decreases as the water temperature, salinity and altitude
increase (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#t2"><FONT
color=#336699>Table 2</FONT></A>). Saturation is the amount of a
dissolved gas when the water and atmospheric phases are in equilibrium (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b30"><FONT
color=#336699>Piper <SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN>
1982</FONT></A>). Gas supersaturation can occur when the dissolved gases
are greater than the equilibrium concentration (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b13"><FONT
color=#336699>Colt 1984</FONT></A>). When fish are exposed to
supersaturated water before it equilibrates, the excess gas might cause
the solution to form emboli in various tissues; this is referred to as gas
bubble disease (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b28"><FONT
color=#336699>Noga 2000</FONT></A>). While using pure oxygen during
transport it is very easy to supersaturate the water. However, because
oxygen is assimilated metabolically it is less likely than other gases
(such as nitrogen) to form persistent bubbles (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b28"><FONT
color=#336699>Noga 2000</FONT></A>). <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b39"><FONT
color=#336699>Wedemeyer (1996)</FONT></A> noted that mortality from gas
bubble disease usually does not occur if oxygen (note: not ambient air,
which contains nitrogen) supersaturation is 200%. However, <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b39"><FONT
color=#336699>Wedemeyer (1996)</FONT></A> warned that gill ventilation
might be reduced because of the high levels of oxygen causing elevated
carbon dioxide (CO<SUB><NOBR>2</NOBR></SUB>) in the fish's blood.</P><A
class=invisible-anchor name=t2><FONT color=#336699> </FONT></A>
<DIV class=table id=t2>
<DIV class=table-title>
<DIV class=table-legend>
<P class=legend-para><A class=invisible-anchor name=t2_legend_span><FONT
color=#336699> </FONT></A><SPAN id=t2_legend_span> <SPAN
class=number><SPAN class=b>Table 2</SPAN> </SPAN> Point of
saturation (referred to as 100% saturation) for dissolved oxygen in water
with varying salinities and temperatures (barometric pressure
760 mmHg)</SPAN> </P></DIV></DIV>
<DIV align=center>
<TABLE>
<TBODY>
<TR vAlign=bottom>
<TD>
<HR noShade SIZE=2>
</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD align=middle>
<TABLE class=data-table>
<TBODY>
<TR>
<TH vAlign=bottom align=left>Temperature (°C)</TH>
<TH vAlign=bottom align=left>Salinity
(0 g L<SUP><NOBR>−1</NOBR></SUP>),
mg L<SUP><NOBR>−1</NOBR></SUP></TH>
<TH vAlign=bottom align=left>Salinity
(15 g L<SUP><NOBR>−1</NOBR></SUP>),
mg L<SUP><NOBR>−1</NOBR></SUP></TH>
<TH vAlign=bottom align=middle>Salinity
(30 g L<SUP><NOBR>−1</NOBR></SUP>),
mg L<SUP><NOBR>−1</NOBR></SUP></TH></TR>
<TR>
<TD colSpan=4>
<HR SIZE=1>
</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left> 0</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>14.602</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>13.180</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=middle>11.896</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left> 2</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>13.813</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>12.487</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=middle>11.287</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left> 4</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>13.094</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>11.853</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=middle>10.730</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left> 6</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>12.436</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>11.274</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=middle>10.220</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left> 8</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>11.832</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>10.742</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=middle> 9.752</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>10</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>11.277</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>10.252</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=middle> 9.321</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>12</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>10.766</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left> 9.801</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=middle> 8.923</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>14</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>10.294</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left> 9.384</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=middle> 8.555</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>16</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left> 9.858</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left> 8.998</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=middle> 8.214</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>18</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left> 9.453</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left> 8.640</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=middle> 7.898</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>20</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left> 9.077</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left> 8.307</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=middle> 7.603</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>22</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left> 8.726</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left> 7.997</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=middle> 7.328</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>24</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left> 8.400</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left> 7.707</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=middle> 7.072</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>26</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left> 8.094</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left> 7.436</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=middle> 6.831</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>28</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left> 7.808</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left> 7.182</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=middle> 6.606</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>30</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left> 7.539</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left> 6.943</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=middle> 6.394</TD></TR>
<TR vAlign=bottom>
<TD colSpan=4>
<HR SIZE=1>
</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=bottom align=left colSpan=4>Source: <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b13">Colt
(1984)</A>.</TD></TR></TBODY></TABLE></TD></TR>
<TR vAlign=bottom>
<TD><FONT size=2></FONT></TD></TR></TBODY></TABLE>The initial
30–60 min in the transport container is critical because of the
increased activity by the fish (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b30"><FONT
color=#336699>Piper <SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN>
1982</FONT></A>). <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b19"><FONT
color=#336699>Fries <SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN>
(1993)</FONT></A> reported a drop from 20 to
<5 mg L<SUP><NOBR>−1</NOBR></SUP> DO during the initial tank
loading process of channel catfish <SPAN class=i><EM>Ictalurus
punctatus</EM></SPAN> (Rafinesque). Therefore, it is very important to
saturate or supersaturate the water with oxygen
(O<SUB><NOBR>2</NOBR></SUB>) prior to placing a heavy load of fish into a
transport tank. It must also be noted that confinement and capturing prior
to transport also pose a threat to deteriorating DO levels within the
holding area. Additional aeration might be required, particularly if
crowding the fish into a confined area is in the scope of the
procedure.</DIV></DIV>
<P class=para>Various methods have been used to achieve and maintain
proper DO levels throughout fish transport, including compressed gaseous
oxygen, agitators, aerators and liquid oxygen. In a given volume, liquid
oxygen holds more oxygen than in the gaseous form. However, a liquid
oxygen dewar will lose approximately 2% daily; thus, if long-term storage
is necessary it could become an issue (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b37"><FONT
color=#336699>Timmons <SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN>
2002</FONT></A>). Using the correct diffuser is also important for
efficiency. Smaller bubbles from fine-pore diffusers have a greater air to
water surface area compared with the same volume of gas with larger
bubbles. This is important with regard to the amount of oxygen needed for
transport. Agitators are inefficient compared with pure
O<SUB><NOBR>2</NOBR></SUB> injection through diffusers, but are important
in removing CO<SUB><NOBR>2</NOBR></SUB>. However, agitators can cause
excessive foaming in salt water (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b10"><FONT
color=#336699>Carmichael <SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN>
2001</FONT></A>). <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b9"><FONT
color=#336699>Carmichael <SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN>
(1992)</FONT></A> recommends a combination of agitators and pure oxygen
diffusers for high-density transports. A secondary source of oxygenation
is always recommended in the event of failure of the primary source.
Stocking density and travel distance often play important roles in the
method/s used to maintain proper DO levels. When using compressed or
liquid oxygen caution must be taken to keep away from flammable materials
and to make sure that the cylinders are securely fastened. Additional care
must be taken when using liquid oxygen because any contact with epithelial
tissue will result in severe burns.</P></DIV><A class=invisible-anchor
name=ss4><FONT color=#336699> </FONT></A><FONT size=4>Suspended
solids and ammonia</FONT>
<DIV class=subsection-level1 id=ss4>
<P class=para>Suspended solids from fish faeces can pollute the water as
well as physically damage the gills of fish. Mechanical-type cartridge
filters connected to a submersible pump have excellent filtration
capabilities and can easily be mounted onto a transport box (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#f1"><FONT
color=#336699>Fig. 1</FONT></A>). Ammonia toxicity is also a concern
in fish transport, especially long hauls. Ammonia is produced as a
by-product from fish metabolism and is primarily excreted through the
gills by diffusion (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b14"><FONT
color=#336699>Colt & Armstrong 1981</FONT></A>). The accumulation of
ammonia can be minimized by fasting fish prior to transport and/or adding
ammonia-reducing agents to the transport water. Fasting fish for at least
24 h is recommended to reduce the accumulation of faeces and ammonia
in the tank (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b10"><FONT
color=#336699>Carmichael <SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN>
2001</FONT></A>). <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b39"><FONT
color=#336699>Wedemeyer (1996)</FONT></A> found that when transporting
salmonids a typical protocol is to fast the fish for 48–72 h prior to
transport. <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b29"><FONT
color=#336699>Phillips and Brockway (1954)</FONT></A> reported that trout
fasted for 63 h produced half as much ammonia as recently fed fish.
Filtration is often used during long-distance transport, whereas just
fasting the fish prior to transport can often be successful for short
trips.</P><A class=invisible-anchor name=f1><FONT
color=#336699> </FONT></A>
<DIV class=figure id=f1 align=center>
<TABLE width="85%" border=0>
<TBODY>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left width=128><A
href="javascript:display_f1(0)"><IMG
src="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/tf1"
border=0></A></TD>
<TD align=left>
<DIV class=figure-legend>
<P class=legend-para><A class=invisible-anchor
name=f1_legend_span> </A><SPAN id=f1_legend_span> <FONT
size=2><SPAN class=number><SPAN class=b>Figure 1</SPAN>
</SPAN> Schematic of a self-contained fish transport box. (a)
Submersible pump, (b) large hatch, (c) mechanical filter, (d) air
vent and (e) compressed oxygen cylinder.</FONT></SPAN>
</P></DIV><SPAN class=image-links><FONT size=1>[</FONT><A
href="javascript:display_f1(0)"><FONT size=1>Normal
View</FONT></A><FONT size=1>
]</FONT></SPAN></TD></TR></TBODY></TABLE></DIV></DIV><A
class=invisible-anchor name=ss5><FONT color=#336699> </FONT></A>
<DIV class=subsection-level1 id=ss5><A class=invisible-anchor
name=h7><FONT color=#336699> </FONT></A>
<H1 class=h1-heading id=h7><FONT size=4>Temperature of the transport
tank</FONT></H1>
<P class=para>Because fish are poikilotherms, the surrounding water is
critical to their physiological reaction rates. As their body temperature
increases biochemical reaction rates increase. Conversely, as their body
temperature decreases, metabolic processes decrease. Thus, cooling the
transport water has advantages. Cooling the water will slow the metabolism
of the fish, which in turn reduces ammonia production, oxygen consumption
and ammonia toxicity and increases oxygen solubility. <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b40"><FONT
color=#336699>Wedemeyer (1997)</FONT></A> found that by reducing the
hauling water by 10°C, most warm-water species will reduce oxygen
consumption and ammonia production by 50% and, therefore, recommends
lowering the hauling water temperature by 5–10°C. Cooling the water by
5–7°C is a widely used protocol in many salmonid transports (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b39"><FONT
color=#336699>Wedemeyer 1996</FONT></A>). However, caution must be used in
the cooling process to ensure that there is not too much of a gradient
difference between the holding water temperatures and the hauling
temperatures as an abrupt change in temperature itself could be a
stressor. Most experienced haulers should know their limits of each
particular species and cool the hauling water accordingly.</P>
<P class=para>Optimal hauling temperatures can vary considerably between
species, so historical information can be helpful with this decision
process, particularly with regard to how well a species tolerates a change
in temperature and how quickly a temperature change should take place. It
might also be beneficial to use the transport time as an acclimation
process between the arrival water and the pre-transport water. <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b30"><FONT
color=#336699>Piper <SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN>
(1982)</FONT></A> recommends channel catfish hauling temperatures of
7.7–10°C (45–50°F) in winter and 15.6–21.1°C (60–70°F) in summer. However,
<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b30"><FONT
color=#336699>Piper <SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN>
(1982)</FONT></A> warn that for channel catfish fry it is not recommended
to cool the hauling water. Studies have recommended that water for the
transport of hybrid bass should be cooled to <18.3°C (65°F) (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b43"><FONT
color=#336699>Yeager <SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN>
1990</FONT></A>). <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b30"><FONT
color=#336699>Piper <SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN>
(1982)</FONT></A> reported that the optimal temperature for hauling
striped bass is 12.8–18.3°C (55–65°F). Transporting the largemouth bass
<SPAN class=i><EM>Micropterus salmoides</EM></SPAN> (Lacepède) was
most successful in 16°C water (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b8"><FONT
color=#336699>Carmichael <SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN>
1984</FONT></A>).</P></DIV><FONT color=#336699> </FONT><FONT
size=4>Maintaining the temperature of the tank</FONT>
<DIV class=subsection-level1 id=ss6>
<P class=para>Temperature control involves maintaining the water
temperature during transport within a desired range. Insulated boxes,
temperature-controlled box trucks, chillers and/or ice can all assist in
controlling the temperature. The tank material can also have an influence
on maintaining the temperature, particularly if the water temperature and
air temperature are very different. Many tanks today are made of
fibreglass or aluminium, with an insulating material such as polyurethane
sandwiched in the middle. This type of tank compared with an aluminium
tank containing no insulation or a fibreglass tank with no insulation has
very different thermal conductivity properties. A few of the more popular
tank materials are listed in <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#t3"><FONT
color=#336699>Table 3</FONT></A>. The lower the <SPAN
class=i><EM>k</EM></SPAN> value the better the insulating properties of
the material. Therefore, tank construction can play a vital role in
maintaining temperature and in determining whether or not an elaborate
heating or cooling system is needed. However, during long transports,
where the ambient temperature is much different than the tank temperature,
a chiller or heater might be necessary to maintain the temperature of the
tank within the desired range.</P><A class=invisible-anchor name=t3><FONT
color=#336699> </FONT></A> <A class=invisible-anchor
name=t3_legend_span><FONT color=#336699> </FONT></A><SPAN
id=t3_legend_span> <SPAN class=number><SPAN class=b>Table 3</SPAN>
</SPAN> Thermal properties of typical hauling tank materials</SPAN>
<DIV class=table id=t3>
<DIV align=center>
<TABLE>
<TBODY>
<TR vAlign=bottom>
<TD>
<HR noShade SIZE=2>
</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD align=middle>
<TABLE class=data-table>
<TBODY>
<TR>
<TH vAlign=bottom align=left>Material</TH>
<TH vAlign=bottom align=left>Thermal conductivity (<SPAN
class=i><EM>k</EM></SPAN>)</TH></TR>
<TR>
<TD colSpan=2>
<HR SIZE=1>
</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>Plywood (Douglas Fir)*</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=middle> 0.8</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>Aluminium (1100 alloy)*</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=middle>1532</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>Fibreglass†</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left> 0.25</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>Polyurethane*</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left> 0.16</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>Urethane†</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left> 0.18</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>Expanded polystyrene (extruded)†</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left> 0.26</TD></TR>
<TR vAlign=bottom>
<TD colSpan=2>
<HR SIZE=1>
</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=bottom align=left colSpan=2>*Taken from the <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b1">American
Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
Engineers (1981)</A>.</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=bottom align=left colSpan=2>†Taken from <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b30">Piper
<SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN> (1982)</A>.</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=bottom align=left colSpan=2>Thermal conductivity
(<SPAN class=i><EM>k</EM></SPAN>) is the amount of heat in
British Thermal Units (BTU) that is transmitted in 1 h
through 1 ft<SUP><NOBR>2</NOBR></SUP> material 1 inch
thick for each degree °F difference between the two surfaces
of the materials.</TD></TR></TBODY></TABLE></TD></TR>
<TR vAlign=bottom>
<TD><FONT size=2></FONT></TD></TR></TBODY></TABLE></DIV></DIV>
<P><A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b101"><FONT
color=#336699>Carmichael and Tomasso (1988)</FONT></A> and <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b1000"><FONT
color=#336699>Johnson (2000)</FONT></A> reported that ice is commonly used
to cool transport water, whereas chillers are less common. One pound of
ice (0.45 kg) will lower two gallons (7.56 L) of water 5.5°C (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b37"><FONT
color=#336699>Timmons <SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN>
2002</FONT></A>). If ice is used and it is made from a chlorinated water
source, sodium thiosulphate
(Na<SUB><NOBR>2</NOBR></SUB>S<SUB><NOBR>2</NOBR></SUB>O<SUB><NOBR>3</NOBR></SUB>)
or sodium sulphite
(Na<SUB><NOBR>2</NOBR></SUB>SO<SUB><NOBR>3</NOBR></SUB>) should be added
to remove the residual chlorine. <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b39"><FONT
color=#336699>Wedemeyer (1996)</FONT></A> recommends
7.4 mg L<SUP><NOBR>−1</NOBR></SUP>
Na<SUB><NOBR>2</NOBR></SUB>S<SUB><NOBR>2</NOBR></SUB>O<SUB><NOBR>3</NOBR></SUB>
to 1 mg L<SUP><NOBR>−1</NOBR></SUP> chlorine and
2 mg L<SUP><NOBR>−1</NOBR></SUP>
Na<SUB><NOBR>2</NOBR></SUB>SO<SUB><NOBR>3</NOBR></SUB> to
1 mg L<SUP><NOBR>−1</NOBR></SUP> chlorine for the neutralization
of chlorine. There are also numerous products that are sold as 'water
conditioners' that claim to work for chlorine removal.</P></DIV><A
class=invisible-anchor name=ss7><FONT color=#336699> </FONT></A><FONT
size=4>Carbon dioxide</FONT>
<DIV class=subsection-level1 id=ss7>
<P class=para>Carbon dioxide is produced as a by-product of fish
metabolism. <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b39"><FONT
color=#336699>Wedemeyer (1996)</FONT></A> points out that a high
concentration of CO<SUB><NOBR>2</NOBR></SUB> can be a greater risk than
elevated ammonia levels during transport. Elevated
CO<SUB><NOBR>2</NOBR></SUB> levels in the holding tank can reduce the
concentration gradient between the blood and the water where diffusion
occurs through the gills. Excess levels of CO<SUB><NOBR>2</NOBR></SUB>
could result in hypercapnia (high CO<SUB><NOBR>2</NOBR></SUB> levels in
the blood) and acidosis and quite possibly narcosis and death (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b40"><FONT
color=#336699>Wedemeyer 1997</FONT></A>). Clinical signs of toxicity
include slowed respiration (although respiration might temporarily
increase just prior to toxicity) and fish lying on the bottom of the tank
(<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b35"><FONT
color=#336699>Stoskopf 1993</FONT></A>). <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b39"><FONT
color=#336699>Wedemeyer (1996)</FONT></A> recommends keeping
CO<SUB><NOBR>2</NOBR></SUB> concentrations below
30–40 mg L<SUP><NOBR>−1</NOBR></SUP> during transport. However,
he warns that if the DO is not saturated this level might be reduced.</P>
<P class=para>Any type of water disturbance, such as agitators or heavy
aeration, can help to remove CO<SUB><NOBR>2</NOBR></SUB> from the water.
However, many transport containers have a lid and are 'closed'. These
tanks can pose a secondary problem. Carbon dioxide that has been stripped
from the water can cause an increase in the partial pressure of
CO<SUB><NOBR>2</NOBR></SUB> in the airspace above the water, which might
eventually prevent CO<SUB><NOBR>2</NOBR></SUB> from off gassing from the
water. In this case, any type of opening in the top of a transport
container can provide a pathway for atmospheric air exchange (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#f1"><FONT
color=#336699>Fig. 1</FONT></A>). Furthermore, <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b17"><FONT
color=#336699>Forsberg and Summerfelt (1999)</FONT></A> reported superior
water quality (i.e. no drop in pH and lower CO<SUB><NOBR>2</NOBR></SUB>)
in transport tanks fitted with ram-air ventilators compared with tanks
with a single vent containing 40.2 g L<SUP><NOBR>−1</NOBR></SUP>
of walleye <SPAN class=i><EM>Stizostedian vitreum</EM></SPAN> (Mitchill)
fingerlings.</P></DIV><A class=invisible-anchor name=ss8><FONT
color=#336699> </FONT></A><FONT size=4>Physical handling</FONT>
<DIV class=subsection-level1 id=ss8>
<P class=para>The stress associated with the physical capture and handling
of fish is often overlooked because of the preparations for the actual
transport of the fish. <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b22"><FONT
color=#336699>Maule <SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN>
(1988)</FONT></A> reported that the most stressful event in their salmonid
study was loading the fish into the tanks and not the actual transport. <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b32"><FONT
color=#336699>Robertson <SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN>
(1988)</FONT></A> also suggested that capturing and handling prior to
transport proved most traumatic to red drum <SPAN
class=i><EM>Sciaenops ocellatus</EM></SPAN> (Linnaeus). <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b20"><FONT
color=#336699>Johnson and Metcalf (1982)</FONT></A> also found that
capturing and handling was a major cause of mortality in the transport of
freshwater drum <SPAN class=i><EM>Aplodinotus grunniens</EM></SPAN>
(Rafinesque). If at all possible, fish should be moved without removing
them from the water. <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b25"><FONT
color=#336699>McDonald and Milligan (1997)</FONT></A> highlighted several
references that reported exposure to air after exercise for even short
periods of time can have a significant impact on mortality rates.</P>
<P class=para>However, handling fish in nets is almost inevitable during
transport procedures. When nets are necessary, it is advisable to use nets
that are less abrasive. Nets made from polypropylene or polyethylene
should be avoided; these nets tend to be stiff and can cause scale loss
(<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b43"><FONT
color=#336699>Yeager <SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN>
1990</FONT></A>). Scale loss can result in an opening to the epidermis
that provides a pathway for bacterial, fungal and viral pathogens. Any
practice to minimize the removal of fish mucus and scale loss is
preferred. Fish mucus acts as an antibacterial agent as well as a physical
barrier between pathogenic organisms in the water and the fish (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b18"><FONT
color=#336699>Francis-Floyd 2002</FONT></A>). Any loss of the mucus will
increase the chance of infection, especially secondary fungal infections
(<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b39"><FONT
color=#336699>Wedemeyer 1996</FONT></A>). It is also advisable to use
coated nets when moving fish with spines. This will help prevent the
spines from getting tangled in the netting material.</P></DIV><A
class=invisible-anchor name=ss9><FONT color=#336699> </FONT></A><FONT
size=4>Carrying capacity</FONT>
<DIV class=subsection-level1 id=ss9>
<P class=para>The number (or weight) of fish that can be successfully
transported depends on water quality, the duration of the transport, water
temperature, fish size and the species. <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b30"><FONT
color=#336699>Piper <SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN>
(1982)</FONT></A> pointed out that with trout the maximum permissible
weight is directly proportional to their length. Thus, if a tank can hold
20 kg of 5 cm trout then it can hold 40 kg of 10 cm
trout. In a survey of fish culturists in the USA, <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b101"><FONT
color=#336699>Carmichael and Tomasso (1988)</FONT></A> found great
variability in transport of the same species. For example, brown trout
0.05–0.29 kg L<SUP><NOBR>−1</NOBR></SUP>, grass carp
0.05–0.27 kg L<SUP><NOBR>−1</NOBR></SUP>, striped bass
0.02–0.29 kg L<SUP><NOBR>−1</NOBR></SUP>, hybrid striped bass
0.04–0.23 kg L<SUP><NOBR>−1</NOBR></SUP>, channel catfish
0.01–0.48 kg L<SUP><NOBR>−1</NOBR></SUP> and rainbow trout
0.02–0.30 kg L<SUP><NOBR>−1</NOBR></SUP>. This variability
within a single species results from fish size, transport time, water
temperature and personnel preferences. Various species and their suggested
transport densities are listed in <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#t4"><FONT
color=#336699>Table 4</FONT></A>. As a general rule, as the transport
time increases (particularly >8 h) the carrying capacity should
decrease.</P><A class=invisible-anchor name=t4><FONT
color=#336699> </FONT></A>
<DIV class=table id=t4>
<DIV class=table-title>
<DIV class=table-legend>
<P class=legend-para><A class=invisible-anchor name=t4_legend_span><FONT
color=#336699> </FONT></A><SPAN id=t4_legend_span> <SPAN
class=number><SPAN class=b>Table 4</SPAN> </SPAN> Suggested
hauling densities for various species of fish as reported by <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b30"><FONT
color=#336699>Piper <SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN>
(1982)</FONT></A></SPAN> </P></DIV></DIV>
<DIV align=center>
<TABLE>
<TBODY>
<TR vAlign=bottom>
<TD>
<HR noShade SIZE=2>
</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD align=middle>
<TABLE class=data-table>
<TBODY>
<TR>
<TH vAlign=bottom align=left>Species</TH>
<TH vAlign=bottom align=middle>Size</TH>
<TH vAlign=bottom align=middle>Carrying capacity
(g L<SUP><NOBR>−1</NOBR></SUP>)</TH>
<TH vAlign=bottom align=middle>Notes</TH></TR>
<TR>
<TD colSpan=4>
<HR SIZE=1>
</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>Chinook salmon<BR> <SPAN
class=i><EM>Oncorhynchus tshawytscha</EM></SPAN></TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>3.81 cm</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>60–120</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=middle><SPAN
class=b><STRONG>–</STRONG></SPAN> </TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>Chinook salmon</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>6.35 cm</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>120–240</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=middle><SPAN
class=b><STRONG>–</STRONG></SPAN> </TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>Coho salmon<BR> <SPAN
class=i><EM>Oncorhynchus kisutch</EM></SPAN></TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>10.1–12.7 cm</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>240–360 </TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=middle><SPAN
class=b><STRONG>–</STRONG></SPAN> </TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>Rainbow trout<BR> <SPAN
class=i><EM>Oncorhynchus mykiss</EM></SPAN></TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>20.3–27.9 cm</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>300–420</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=middle><SPAN
class=b><STRONG>–</STRONG></SPAN> </TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>Largemouth bass<BR> <SPAN
class=i><EM>Micropterus salmoides</EM></SPAN></TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>15.2–25.4 cm</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>240</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>Up to 10 h transport</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>Striped bass<BR> <SPAN
class=i><EM>Morone saxatilis</EM></SPAN></TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>91 g</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>180</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>10 h transport</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>Striped bass</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>10 g</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>60</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>19–24 h</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>Striped bass</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>91 g</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>90</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>15 h</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>Channel catfish<BR> <SPAN
class=i><EM>Ictalurus punctatus</EM></SPAN></TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>227 g</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>708</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left> 8 h, 18.2°C</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>Channel catfish</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>9.1 g</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>414</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left> 8 h, 18.2°C</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>Channel catfish</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>3.6 g</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left>354</TD>
<TD vAlign=top align=left> 8 h,
18.2°C</TD></TR></TBODY></TABLE></TD></TR>
<TR vAlign=bottom>
<TD>
<HR noShade SIZE=2>
</TD></TR></TBODY></TABLE></DIV></DIV>
<P><FONT size=4>Water conditioners</FONT></P></DIV>
<DIV class=subsection-level1 id=ss10>
<P class=para>Many transport protocols include the addition of water
conditioners to the tanks. There are products available that act as
anti-foaming agents, pH stabilizers, ammonia removers, electrolytes and
'slime coat' agents. However, limited research has been conducted on these
agents, mainly because most are not used with food fish in the USA. The US
Food and Drug Administration regulates the drugs used on these animals
and, depending on whether or not the compound is considered a drug, will
determine if the product can be used on food fish legally. A study by <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b36"><FONT
color=#336699>Swanson <SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN>
(1996)</FONT></A> using delta smelt <SPAN class=i><EM>Hypomesus
transpacificus</EM></SPAN> (McAllister) found that the addition of NovAqua
(Kordon LLC, Hayward, CA, USA) increased survival over 72 h by 26.9%.
<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b39"><FONT
color=#336699>Wedemeyer (1996)</FONT></A> reported a significant reduction
in mortalities when using Polyaqua (Kordon LLC) when trucking chinook
salmon <SPAN class=i><EM>Oncorhynchus tshawytscha</EM></SPAN> (Walbaum)
and steelhead <SPAN class=i><EM>O. mykiss</EM></SPAN> (Walbaum). Both
of these products are polymer formulations that form a temporary coating
on exposed tissue that has lost mucus. These chemical agents, particularly
pH stabilizers and ammonia removers, are widely used in the transport and
shipping procedures of non-food fish.</P></DIV><FONT
color=#336699> </FONT><FONT size=4>Anaesthetics</FONT>
<DIV class=subsection-level1 id=ss11>
<P class=para>Anaesthetics are widely used prior to and during transport
to slow the metabolism of the fish, thus reducing oxygen uptake and
decreasing CO<SUB><NOBR>2</NOBR></SUB> and ammonia production.
Anaesthetics also lessen the stress response caused by increased activity
and handling (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b39"><FONT
color=#336699>Wedemeyer 1996</FONT></A>). The proper dosage is critical
and will vary with species and fish size. Only a light sedation should be
used if anaesthetics are used during transport (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b40"><FONT
color=#336699>Wedemeyer 1997</FONT></A>). It is important that the
physiological functions of the fish and its orientation in the water
column are not hindered by the anaesthetic, which they would be if a dose
for anaesthesia rather than sedation was administered. <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b8"><FONT
color=#336699>Carmichael <SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN>
(1984)</FONT></A> found that the use of tricaine methanesulphonate
(MS-222) both before (50 mg L<SUP><NOBR>−1</NOBR></SUP>) and
during (15 mg L<SUP><NOBR>−1</NOBR></SUP>) transport reduced
stress in the largemouth bass <SPAN class=i><EM>M. salmoides</EM></SPAN>
(Lacepède). <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b43"><FONT
color=#336699>Yeager <SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN>
(1990)</FONT></A> found that the use of MS-222 at
3–8 mg L<SUP><NOBR>−1</NOBR></SUP> during the transport of
striped bass <SPAN class=i><EM>M. saxatilis</EM></SPAN> (Walbaum)
brood fish was successful. <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b32"><FONT
color=#336699>Robertson <SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN>
(1988)</FONT></A> recommended rapid anesthetization with MS-222
(80 mg L<SUP><NOBR>−1</NOBR></SUP>) prior to capture and that no
anaesthetic was used during shipment for red drum <SPAN
class=i><EM>S. ocellatus</EM></SPAN> (Linnaeus). As expected, these
dosages and techniques vary among species. Currently, MS-222 is the only
anaesthetic approved by the US Food and Drug Administration's Center for
Veterinary Medicine for use on food fish, but MS-222 has a 21 day
withdrawal time (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b33"><FONT
color=#336699>Schnick 2006</FONT></A>).</P></DIV><A class=invisible-anchor
name=ss12><FONT color=#336699> </FONT></A><FONT
size=4>Acclimation</FONT>
<DIV class=subsection-level1 id=ss12>
<P class=para>Acclimation can often be overlooked in fish hauling
operations because of the time spent on the actual transport as well as
knowing that the fish have arrived safely. However, fish can become
stressed if not acclimated properly and can become immunosuppressed,
possibly leading to delayed mortality. The preferred method to reduce the
stress associated with the acclimation process is to mimic the water from
which the fish was taken. When hauling fish this involves the transport
container water and the receiving water after transport. Abrupt changes in
water parameters, such as temperature, pH, hardness and salinity, should
be avoided (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b28"><FONT
color=#336699>Noga 2000</FONT></A>). Fish should be acclimated to
receiving water if it is much different from the transport water. However,
as mentioned previously, adding salts as well as reducing the hauling
temperature of freshwater species can be beneficial during the hauling
procedure. Therefore, depending on the gradient difference an acclimation
procedure might need to be part of the transport procedure.</P>
<P class=para><A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b28"><FONT
color=#336699>Noga (2000)</FONT></A> recommends a 1°C change per hour for
most fish, but acknowledges that certain species will tolerate a more
rapid change. However, <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b39"><FONT
color=#336699>Wedemeyer (1996)</FONT></A> noted that healthy salmonids
could tolerate up to a 10°C change in water temperature with only mild
stress and that it is a common practice for culturists to gradually
acclimate over a few hours if the temperature difference is >10°C. <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b37"><FONT
color=#336699>Timmons <SPAN class=i><EM>et al.</EM></SPAN>
(2002)</FONT></A> recommended that a temperature change should not exceed
5.5°C in 20 min and if the pH differs by more than one unit to
exchange 10% of the tank water every 10–20 min with the receiving
water until it is similar. Most fish seem to tolerate a rapid drop in
temperature better than the equivalent rise in temperature (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b28"><FONT
color=#336699>Noga 2000</FONT></A>). Because of the uncertainty of
variables, such as cumulative stressors and the overall condition of the
fish, past experience in similar situations is certainly beneficial, but
might vary among shipments. Moreover, the extreme variation in the
acclimation procedures often reported probably results from differences in
the aforementioned variables.</P></DIV><A class=invisible-anchor
name=ss13><FONT color=#336699> </FONT></A><FONT size=4>Final
considerations</FONT>
<DIV class=subsection-level1 id=ss13>
<P class=para>Prior knowledge of transport techniques and familiarity with
a species' tolerances and the history of the fish being transported is
invaluable to biologists. A list of recommendations for hauling conditions
and acclimation of various species is presented in <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#t1"><FONT
color=#336699>Table 1</FONT></A>. <A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b101"><FONT
color=#336699>Carmichael and Tomasso (1988)</FONT></A> evaluated survey
results on transport methods for 13 species of fish and found great
variability among haulers. Each species along with life stage and genetics
might differ in water-quality tolerances as well as susceptibility to
transport-induced stressors (<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/122196683/main.html,ftx_abs#b4"><FONT
color=#336699>Barton & Iwama 1991</FONT></A>). Furthermore, the health
of the fish plays an important role in survivability and health after
transport. It is not only the transport procedures that are important –
the holding conditions before transport and the receiving waters after
transport can also play an important role in the success of live-fish
transports. A fish in poor condition before any transport activities is
more likely to be overcome by the physiological challenges associated with
transport-induced stress than a healthy fish.</P>
<P class=para>During transport some sources of potential stress might be
unavoidable; however, there might be practices that will reduce the amount
and duration of stress placed on the fish. With these practices and
procedures in place the biologist/culturist will be more successful during
transport and will also increase overall fish health after
transport.</P></DIV></DIV><A class=invisible-anchor name=s2><FONT
color=#336699> </FONT></A><STRONG>Acknowledgements</STRONG>
<DIV class=backmatter id=s2>
<DIV class=subsection-level1 id=ss14>
<P class=para>I thank Andrew Stamper, Scott Martin and Jane Davis for
reviewing earlier versions of this manuscript. The mention of trade names
or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation
by Walt Disney World Co.</P></DIV><A class=invisible-anchor
name=ss15><FONT color=#336699> </FONT></A>
<DIV class=references id=references>
<H1 class=h1-heading id=h17><FONT size=4>References</FONT></H1>
<UL class=references-list>
<LI>
<P class=reference-list-para id=b1><SPAN class=author-info><SPAN
class=corporatename>American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and
Air-Conditioning Engineers</SPAN><SPAN class=addresses></SPAN></SPAN>
(<SPAN class=reference-date>1981</SPAN>) <SPAN
class=reference-book-title><EM>ASHRAE Handbook</EM></SPAN>. <SPAN
class=reference-publisher>ASHRAE</SPAN>, <SPAN
class=reference-address>Atlanta</SPAN>.</P>
<LI>
<P class=reference-list-para id=b2><A class=invisible-anchor
name=b2><FONT color=#336699> </FONT></A><SPAN
class=author-info><SPAN class=name><SPAN class=surname>Backman</SPAN>
<SPAN class=forenames>TW</SPAN></SPAN>, <SPAN class=name><SPAN
class=surname>Ross</SPAN> <SPAN class=forenames>RM</SPAN></SPAN><SPAN
class=addresses></SPAN></SPAN> (<SPAN class=reference-date>1990</SPAN>)
<SPAN class=reference-document-title>Comparison of three techniques for
the capture and transport of impounded subyearling American shad</SPAN>.
<SPAN class=reference-journal-title><EM>The Progressive Fish
Culturist</EM></SPAN> <SPAN
class=reference-volume><STRONG>52</STRONG></SPAN>: <SPAN
class=reference-page>246</SPAN>–<SPAN class=reference-page>252</SPAN>.
<SCRIPT language=JavaScript>print_JCIT('TYPE=JCIT&BIBID=BIB2&SNM=Backman&SNM=Ross&FNM=TW&FNM=RM&ATL=Comparison of three techniques for the capture and transport of impounded subyearling American shad&JTL=The Progressive Fish Culturist&PYR=1990&VID=52&PPF=246');</SCRIPT>
<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/reflink?object=TYPE%3DJCIT%26BIBID%3D2%26SNM%3DBackman%26SNM%3DRoss%26FNM%3DTW%26FNM%3DRM%26ATL%3DComparison%20of%20three%20techniques%20for%20the%20capture%20and%20transport%20of%20impounded%20subyearling%20American%20shad%26JTL%3DThe%20Progressive%20Fish%20Culturist%26PYR%3D1990%26VID%3D52%26PPF%3D246%26ADOI%3D10.1111/j.1753-5131.2008.01003.x%26EVIEW%3DY%26ENABLEISI%3DN%26ENABLECAS%3DY%26ENABLEPM%3DY"
target=_top><SPAN><FONT
color=#336699>Links</FONT></SPAN></A> </P>
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name=b3><FONT color=#336699> </FONT></A><SPAN
class=author-info><SPAN class=name><SPAN class=surname>Barton</SPAN>
<SPAN class=forenames>BA</SPAN></SPAN><SPAN
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class=forenames>AD</SPAN></SPAN>, <SPAN class=name><SPAN
class=surname>Sumpter</SPAN> <SPAN class=forenames>JP</SPAN></SPAN>,
<SPAN class=name><SPAN class=surname>Schreck</SPAN> <SPAN
class=forenames>CB</SPAN></SPAN><SPAN class=addresses></SPAN></SPAN>
(<SPAN class=reference-miscellaneoustext>eds</SPAN>) <SPAN
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<SPAN class=reference-publisher>Cambridge University Press</SPAN>, <SPAN
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name=b4><FONT color=#336699> </FONT></A><SPAN
class=author-info><SPAN class=name><SPAN class=surname>Barton</SPAN>
<SPAN class=forenames>BA</SPAN></SPAN>, <SPAN class=name><SPAN
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corticosteroids</SPAN>. <SPAN class=reference-journal-title><EM>Annual
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class=reference-volume><STRONG>1</STRONG></SPAN>: <SPAN
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<SCRIPT language=JavaScript>print_JCIT('TYPE=JCIT&BIBID=BIB4_2&SNM=Barton&SNM=Iwama&FNM=BA&FNM=GK&ATL=Physiological changes in fish from stress in aquaculture with emphasis on the response and effects of corticosteroids&JTL=Annual Review of Fish Diseases&PYR=1991&VID=1&PPF=3');</SCRIPT>
<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/reflink?object=TYPE%3DJCIT%26BIBID%3D4_2%26SNM%3DBarton%26SNM%3DIwama%26FNM%3DBA%26FNM%3DGK%26ATL%3DPhysiological%20changes%20in%20fish%20from%20stress%20in%20aquaculture%20with%20emphasis%20on%20the%20response%20and%20effects%20of%20corticosteroids%26JTL%3DAnnual%20Review%20of%20Fish%20Diseases%26PYR%3D1991%26VID%3D1%26PPF%3D3%26ADOI%3D10.1111/j.1753-5131.2008.01003.x%26EVIEW%3DY%26ENABLEISI%3DN%26ENABLECAS%3DY%26ENABLEPM%3DY"
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color=#336699>Links</FONT></SPAN></A> </P>
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name=b5><FONT color=#336699> </FONT></A><SPAN
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<SPAN class=forenames>BA</SPAN></SPAN>, <SPAN class=name><SPAN
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class=reference-journal-title><EM>Transactions of the American Fisheries
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<SCRIPT language=JavaScript>print_JCIT('TYPE=JCIT&BIBID=BIB5_3&SNM=Barton&SNM=Schreck&FNM=BA&FNM=CB&ATL=Metabolic cost of acute physical stress in juvenile Steelhead&JTL=Transactions of the American Fisheries Society&PYR=1987&VID=116&PPF=257');</SCRIPT>
<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/reflink?object=TYPE%3DJCIT%26BIBID%3D5_3%26SNM%3DBarton%26SNM%3DSchreck%26FNM%3DBA%26FNM%3DCB%26ATL%3DMetabolic%20cost%20of%20acute%20physical%20stress%20in%20juvenile%20Steelhead%26JTL%3DTransactions%20of%20the%20American%20Fisheries%20Society%26PYR%3D1987%26VID%3D116%26PPF%3D257%26ADOI%3D10.1111/j.1753-5131.2008.01003.x%26EVIEW%3DY%26ENABLEISI%3DN%26ENABLECAS%3DY%26ENABLEPM%3DY"
target=_top><SPAN><FONT
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name=b6><FONT color=#336699> </FONT></A><SPAN
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<SPAN class=forenames>BA</SPAN></SPAN>, <SPAN class=name><SPAN
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walleyes to handling stress with recovery in saline water</SPAN>. <SPAN
class=reference-journal-title><EM>The Progressive Fish
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class=reference-volume><STRONG>57</STRONG></SPAN>: <SPAN
class=reference-page>267</SPAN>–<SPAN class=reference-page>276</SPAN>.
<SCRIPT language=JavaScript>print_JCIT('TYPE=JCIT&BIBID=BIB6_4&SNM=Barton&SNM=Zitzow&FNM=BA&FNM=RE&ATL=Physiological responses of juvenile walleyes to handling stress with recovery in saline water&JTL=The Progressive Fish Culturist&PYR=1995&VID=57&PPF=267');</SCRIPT>
<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/reflink?object=TYPE%3DJCIT%26BIBID%3D6_4%26SNM%3DBarton%26SNM%3DZitzow%26FNM%3DBA%26FNM%3DRE%26ATL%3DPhysiological%20responses%20of%20juvenile%20walleyes%20to%20handling%20stress%20with%20recovery%20in%20saline%20water%26JTL%3DThe%20Progressive%20Fish%20Culturist%26PYR%3D1995%26VID%3D57%26PPF%3D267%26ADOI%3D10.1111/j.1753-5131.2008.01003.x%26EVIEW%3DY%26ENABLEISI%3DN%26ENABLECAS%3DY%26ENABLEPM%3DY"
target=_top><SPAN><FONT
color=#336699>Links</FONT></SPAN></A> </P>
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name=b7><FONT color=#336699> </FONT></A><SPAN
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<SPAN class=forenames>ME</SPAN></SPAN>, <SPAN class=name><SPAN
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(<SPAN class=reference-date>2002</SPAN>) <SPAN
class=reference-document-title>Metabolic responses of juvenile striped
bass to exercise and handling stress with various recovery
environments</SPAN>. <SPAN
class=reference-journal-title><EM>Transactions of the American Fisheries
Society</EM></SPAN> <SPAN
class=reference-volume><STRONG>131</STRONG></SPAN>: <SPAN
class=reference-page>855</SPAN>–<SPAN class=reference-page>864</SPAN>.
<SCRIPT language=JavaScript>print_JCIT('TYPE=JCIT&BIBID=BIB7_5&SNM=Brick&SNM=Cech&FNM=ME&FNM=JJ&ATL=Metabolic responses of juvenile striped bass to exercise and handling stress with various recovery environments&JTL=Transactions of the American Fisheries Society&PYR=2002&VID=131&PPF=855');</SCRIPT>
<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/reflink?object=TYPE%3DJCIT%26BIBID%3D7_5%26SNM%3DBrick%26SNM%3DCech%26FNM%3DME%26FNM%3DJJ%26ATL%3DMetabolic%20responses%20of%20juvenile%20striped%20bass%20to%20exercise%20and%20handling%20stress%20with%20various%20recovery%20environments%26JTL%3DTransactions%20of%20the%20American%20Fisheries%20Society%26PYR%3D2002%26VID%3D131%26PPF%3D855%26ADOI%3D10.1111/j.1753-5131.2008.01003.x%26EVIEW%3DY%26ENABLEISI%3DN%26ENABLECAS%3DY%26ENABLEPM%3DY"
target=_top><SPAN><FONT
color=#336699>Links</FONT></SPAN></A> </P>
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name=b101><FONT color=#336699> </FONT></A><SPAN
class=author-info><SPAN class=name><SPAN class=surname>Carmichael</SPAN>
<SPAN class=forenames>GJ</SPAN></SPAN>, <SPAN class=name><SPAN
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<SCRIPT language=JavaScript>print_JCIT('TYPE=JCIT&BIBID=BIB101_6&SNM=Carmichael&SNM=Tomasso&FNM=GJ&FNM=JR&ATL=Survey of fish transportation equipment and techniques&JTL=The Progressive Fish Culturist&PYR=1988&VID=50&PPF=155');</SCRIPT>
<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/reflink?object=TYPE%3DJCIT%26BIBID%3D101_6%26SNM%3DCarmichael%26SNM%3DTomasso%26FNM%3DGJ%26FNM%3DJR%26ATL%3DSurvey%20of%20fish%20transportation%20equipment%20and%20techniques%26JTL%3DThe%20Progressive%20Fish%20Culturist%26PYR%3D1988%26VID%3D50%26PPF%3D155%26ADOI%3D10.1111/j.1753-5131.2008.01003.x%26EVIEW%3DY%26ENABLEISI%3DN%26ENABLECAS%3DY%26ENABLEPM%3DY"
target=_top><SPAN><FONT
color=#336699>Links</FONT></SPAN></A> </P>
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<SPAN class=forenames>GJ</SPAN></SPAN>, <SPAN class=name><SPAN
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<SPAN class=name><SPAN class=surname>Simco</SPAN> <SPAN
class=forenames>BA</SPAN></SPAN>, <SPAN class=name><SPAN
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<SCRIPT language=JavaScript>print_JCIT('TYPE=JCIT&BIBID=BIB8_7&SNM=Carmichael&SNM=Tomasso&SNM=Simco&SNM=Davis&FNM=GJ&FNM=JR&FNM=BA&FNM=KB&ATL=Characterization and alleviation of stress associated with hauling largemouth bass&JTL=Transactions of the American Fisheries Society&PYR=1984&VID=113&PPF=778');</SCRIPT>
<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/reflink?object=TYPE%3DJCIT%26BIBID%3D8_7%26SNM%3DCarmichael%26SNM%3DTomasso%26SNM%3DSimco%26SNM%3DDavis%26FNM%3DGJ%26FNM%3DJR%26FNM%3DBA%26FNM%3DKB%26ATL%3DCharacterization%20and%20alleviation%20of%20stress%20associated%20with%20hauling%20largemouth%20bass%26JTL%3DTransactions%20of%20the%20American%20Fisheries%20Society%26PYR%3D1984%26VID%3D113%26PPF%3D778%26ADOI%3D10.1111/j.1753-5131.2008.01003.x%26EVIEW%3DY%26ENABLEISI%3DN%26ENABLECAS%3DY%26ENABLEPM%3DY"
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<SCRIPT language=JavaScript>print_JCIT('TYPE=JCIT&BIBID=BIB9_8&SNM=Carmichael&SNM=Jones&SNM=Morrow&FNM=GJ&FNM=RM&FNM=JC&ATL=Comparative efficacy of oxygen diffusers in a fish-hauling tank&JTL=The Progressive Fish Culturist&PYR=1992&VID=54&PPF=35');</SCRIPT>
<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/reflink?object=TYPE%3DJCIT%26BIBID%3D9_8%26SNM%3DCarmichael%26SNM%3DJones%26SNM%3DMorrow%26FNM%3DGJ%26FNM%3DRM%26FNM%3DJC%26ATL%3DComparative%20efficacy%20of%20oxygen%20diffusers%20in%20a%20fish-hauling%20tank%26JTL%3DThe%20Progressive%20Fish%20Culturist%26PYR%3D1992%26VID%3D54%26PPF%3D35%26ADOI%3D10.1111/j.1753-5131.2008.01003.x%26EVIEW%3DY%26ENABLEISI%3DN%26ENABLECAS%3DY%26ENABLEPM%3DY"
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name=b10><FONT color=#336699> </FONT></A><SPAN
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<SPAN class=forenames>GJ</SPAN></SPAN>, <SPAN class=name><SPAN
class=surname>Tomasso</SPAN> <SPAN class=forenames>JR</SPAN></SPAN>,
<SPAN class=name><SPAN class=surname>Schwelder</SPAN> <SPAN
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name=b11><FONT color=#336699> </FONT></A><SPAN
class=author-info><SPAN class=name><SPAN class=surname>Cech</SPAN> <SPAN
class=forenames>JJ</SPAN></SPAN>, <SPAN class=name><SPAN
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<SPAN class=name><SPAN class=surname>Young</SPAN> <SPAN
class=forenames>PS</SPAN></SPAN>, <SPAN class=name><SPAN
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<SCRIPT language=JavaScript>print_JCIT('TYPE=JCIT&BIBID=BIB11_9&SNM=Cech&SNM=Bartholow&SNM=Young&SNM=Hopkins&FNM=JJ&FNM=SD&FNM=PS&FNM=TE&ATL=Striped bass exercise and handling stress in freshwater: physiological responses to recovery environment&JTL=Transactions of the American Fisheries Society&PYR=1996&VID=125&PPF=308');</SCRIPT>
<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/reflink?object=TYPE%3DJCIT%26BIBID%3D11_9%26SNM%3DCech%26SNM%3DBartholow%26SNM%3DYoung%26SNM%3DHopkins%26FNM%3DJJ%26FNM%3DSD%26FNM%3DPS%26FNM%3DTE%26ATL%3DStriped%20bass%20exercise%20and%20handling%20stress%20in%20freshwater%3A%20physiological%20responses%20to%20recovery%20environment%26JTL%3DTransactions%20of%20the%20American%20Fisheries%20Society%26PYR%3D1996%26VID%3D125%26PPF%3D308%26ADOI%3D10.1111/j.1753-5131.2008.01003.x%26EVIEW%3DY%26ENABLEISI%3DN%26ENABLECAS%3DY%26ENABLEPM%3DY"
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<SCRIPT language=JavaScript>print_JCIT('TYPE=JCIT&BIBID=BIB12_10&SNM=Collins&SNM=Hulsey&FNM=JL&FNM=AH&ATL=Hauling mortality of threadfin shad reduced with MS-222 and salt&JTL=Transactions of the American Fisheries Society&PYR=1963&VID=25&PPF=105');</SCRIPT>
<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/reflink?object=TYPE%3DJCIT%26BIBID%3D12_10%26SNM%3DCollins%26SNM%3DHulsey%26FNM%3DJL%26FNM%3DAH%26ATL%3DHauling%20mortality%20of%20threadfin%20shad%20reduced%20with%20MS-222%20and%20salt%26JTL%3DTransactions%20of%20the%20American%20Fisheries%20Society%26PYR%3D1963%26VID%3D25%26PPF%3D105%26ADOI%3D10.1111/j.1753-5131.2008.01003.x%26EVIEW%3DY%26ENABLEISI%3DN%26ENABLECAS%3DY%26ENABLEPM%3DY"
target=_top><SPAN><FONT
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class=reference-publisher>American Fisheries Society</SPAN>, <SPAN
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class=forenames>JE</SPAN></SPAN>, <SPAN class=name><SPAN
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name=b15><FONT color=#336699> </FONT></A><SPAN
class=author-info><SPAN class=name><SPAN class=surname>Davis</SPAN>
<SPAN class=forenames>KB</SPAN></SPAN><SPAN
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<SPAN class=reference-document-title>Management of physiological stress
in finfish aquaculture</SPAN>. <SPAN
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Aquaculture</EM></SPAN> <SPAN
class=reference-volume><STRONG>68</STRONG></SPAN>: <SPAN
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<SCRIPT language=JavaScript>print_JCIT('TYPE=JCIT&BIBID=BIB15_11&SNM=Davis&FNM=KB&ATL=Management of physiological stress in finfish aquaculture&JTL=North American Journal of Aquaculture&PYR=2006&VID=68&PPF=116');</SCRIPT>
<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/reflink?object=TYPE%3DJCIT%26BIBID%3D15_11%26SNM%3DDavis%26FNM%3DKB%26ATL%3DManagement%20of%20physiological%20stress%20in%20finfish%20aquaculture%26JTL%3DNorth%20American%20Journal%20of%20Aquaculture%26PYR%3D2006%26VID%3D68%26PPF%3D116%26ADOI%3D10.1111/j.1753-5131.2008.01003.x%26EVIEW%3DY%26ENABLEISI%3DN%26ENABLECAS%3DY%26ENABLEPM%3DY"
target=_top><SPAN><FONT
color=#336699>Links</FONT></SPAN></A> </P>
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name=b16><FONT color=#336699> </FONT></A><SPAN
class=author-info><SPAN class=name><SPAN class=surname>Davis</SPAN>
<SPAN class=forenames>KB</SPAN></SPAN>, <SPAN class=name><SPAN
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<SPAN class=reference-journal-title><EM>Transactions of American
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class=reference-volume><STRONG>115</STRONG></SPAN>: <SPAN
class=reference-page>495</SPAN>–<SPAN class=reference-page>499</SPAN>.
<SCRIPT language=JavaScript>print_JCIT('TYPE=JCIT&BIBID=BIB16_12&SNM=Davis&SNM=Parker&FNM=KB&FNM=NC&ATL=Plasma corticosteroid stress response of fourteen species of warmwater fish to transportation&JTL=Transactions of American Fisheries Society&PYR=1986&VID=115&PPF=495');</SCRIPT>
<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/reflink?object=TYPE%3DJCIT%26BIBID%3D16_12%26SNM%3DDavis%26SNM%3DParker%26FNM%3DKB%26FNM%3DNC%26ATL%3DPlasma%20corticosteroid%20stress%20response%20of%20fourteen%20species%20of%20warmwater%20fish%20to%20transportation%26JTL%3DTransactions%20of%20American%20Fisheries%20Society%26PYR%3D1986%26VID%3D115%26PPF%3D495%26ADOI%3D10.1111/j.1753-5131.2008.01003.x%26EVIEW%3DY%26ENABLEISI%3DN%26ENABLECAS%3DY%26ENABLEPM%3DY"
target=_top><SPAN><FONT
color=#336699>Links</FONT></SPAN></A> </P>
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class=reference-volume><STRONG>61</STRONG></SPAN>: <SPAN
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<SCRIPT language=JavaScript>print_JCIT('TYPE=JCIT&BIBID=BIB17_13&SNM=Forsberg&SNM=Summerfelt&FNM=JA&FNM=RC&ATL=Effects of ram-air ventilation during transportation on water quality and physiology of fingerling walleyes&JTL=North American Journal of Aquaculture&PYR=1999&VID=61&PPF=220');</SCRIPT>
<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/reflink?object=TYPE%3DJCIT%26BIBID%3D17_13%26SNM%3DForsberg%26SNM%3DSummerfelt%26FNM%3DJA%26FNM%3DRC%26ATL%3DEffects%20of%20ram-air%20ventilation%20during%20transportation%20on%20water%20quality%20and%20physiology%20of%20fingerling%20walleyes%26JTL%3DNorth%20American%20Journal%20of%20Aquaculture%26PYR%3D1999%26VID%3D61%26PPF%3D220%26ADOI%3D10.1111/j.1753-5131.2008.01003.x%26EVIEW%3DY%26ENABLEISI%3DN%26ENABLECAS%3DY%26ENABLEPM%3DY"
target=_top><SPAN><FONT
color=#336699>Links</FONT></SPAN></A> </P>
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name=b18><FONT color=#336699> </FONT></A><SPAN
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class=reference-book-title><EM>Stress – Its Role in Fish
Disease</EM></SPAN>. <SPAN class=reference-publisher>University of
Florida IFAS Extension Circular 919, University of Florida</SPAN>, <SPAN
class=reference-address>Gainesville</SPAN>.</P>
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name=b19><FONT color=#336699> </FONT></A><SPAN
class=author-info><SPAN class=name><SPAN class=surname>Fries</SPAN>
<SPAN class=forenames>JN</SPAN></SPAN>, <SPAN class=name><SPAN
class=surname>Berkhouse</SPAN> <SPAN class=forenames>CS</SPAN></SPAN>,
<SPAN class=name><SPAN class=surname>Morrow</SPAN> <SPAN
class=forenames>JC</SPAN></SPAN>, <SPAN class=name><SPAN
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Culturist</EM></SPAN> <SPAN
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class=reference-page>187</SPAN>–<SPAN class=reference-page>190</SPAN>.
<SCRIPT language=JavaScript>print_JCIT('TYPE=JCIT&BIBID=BIB19_14&SNM=Fries&SNM=Berkhouse&SNM=Morrow&SNM=Carmichael&FNM=JN&FNM=CS&FNM=JC&FNM=GJ&ATL=Evaluation of an aeration system in a loaded fish-hauling tank&JTL=The Progressive Fish Culturist&PYR=1993&VID=55&PPF=187');</SCRIPT>
<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/reflink?object=TYPE%3DJCIT%26BIBID%3D19_14%26SNM%3DFries%26SNM%3DBerkhouse%26SNM%3DMorrow%26SNM%3DCarmichael%26FNM%3DJN%26FNM%3DCS%26FNM%3DJC%26FNM%3DGJ%26ATL%3DEvaluation%20of%20an%20aeration%20system%20in%20a%20loaded%20fish-hauling%20tank%26JTL%3DThe%20Progressive%20Fish%20Culturist%26PYR%3D1993%26VID%3D55%26PPF%3D187%26ADOI%3D10.1111/j.1753-5131.2008.01003.x%26EVIEW%3DY%26ENABLEISI%3DN%26ENABLECAS%3DY%26ENABLEPM%3DY"
target=_top><SPAN><FONT
color=#336699>Links</FONT></SPAN></A> </P>
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name=b1000><FONT color=#336699> </FONT></A><SPAN
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class=reference-miscellaneoustext>ed</SPAN>.) <SPAN
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<SPAN class=reference-publisher>John Wiley & Sons</SPAN>, <SPAN
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<SPAN class=forenames>DL</SPAN></SPAN>, <SPAN class=name><SPAN
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<SCRIPT language=JavaScript>print_JCIT('TYPE=JCIT&BIBID=BIB20_15&SNM=Johnson&SNM=Metcalf&FNM=DL&FNM=MT&ATL=Causes and controls of freshwater drum mortality during transportation&JTL=Transactions of the American Fisheries Society&PYR=1982&VID=111&PPF=58');</SCRIPT>
<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/reflink?object=TYPE%3DJCIT%26BIBID%3D20_15%26SNM%3DJohnson%26SNM%3DMetcalf%26FNM%3DDL%26FNM%3DMT%26ATL%3DCauses%20and%20controls%20of%20freshwater%20drum%20mortality%20during%20transportation%26JTL%3DTransactions%20of%20the%20American%20Fisheries%20Society%26PYR%3D1982%26VID%3D111%26PPF%3D58%26ADOI%3D10.1111/j.1753-5131.2008.01003.x%26EVIEW%3DY%26ENABLEISI%3DN%26ENABLECAS%3DY%26ENABLEPM%3DY"
target=_top><SPAN><FONT
color=#336699>Links</FONT></SPAN></A> </P>
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name=b21><FONT color=#336699> </FONT></A><SPAN
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<SPAN class=forenames>ME</SPAN></SPAN>, <SPAN class=name><SPAN
class=surname>Stein</SPAN> <SPAN class=forenames>RA</SPAN></SPAN>, <SPAN
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<SPAN class=reference-journal-title><EM>Transactions of the American
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<SCRIPT language=JavaScript>print_JCIT('TYPE=JCIT&BIBID=BIB21_16&SNM=Mather&SNM=Stein&SNM=Carline&FNM=ME&FNM=RA&FNM=RF&ATL=Experimental assessment of mortality and hyperglycemia in tiger muskellunge due to stocking stressors&JTL=Transactions of the American Fisheries Society&PYR=1986&VID=115&PPF=762');</SCRIPT>
<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/reflink?object=TYPE%3DJCIT%26BIBID%3D21_16%26SNM%3DMather%26SNM%3DStein%26SNM%3DCarline%26FNM%3DME%26FNM%3DRA%26FNM%3DRF%26ATL%3DExperimental%20assessment%20of%20mortality%20and%20hyperglycemia%20in%20tiger%20muskellunge%20due%20to%20stocking%20stressors%26JTL%3DTransactions%20of%20the%20American%20Fisheries%20Society%26PYR%3D1986%26VID%3D115%26PPF%3D762%26ADOI%3D10.1111/j.1753-5131.2008.01003.x%26EVIEW%3DY%26ENABLEISI%3DN%26ENABLECAS%3DY%26ENABLEPM%3DY"
target=_top><SPAN><FONT
color=#336699>Links</FONT></SPAN></A> </P>
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name=b22><FONT color=#336699> </FONT></A><SPAN
class=author-info><SPAN class=name><SPAN class=surname>Maule</SPAN>
<SPAN class=forenames>AG</SPAN></SPAN>, <SPAN class=name><SPAN
class=surname>Schreck</SPAN> <SPAN class=forenames>CB</SPAN></SPAN>,
<SPAN class=name><SPAN class=surname>Samual</SPAN> <SPAN
class=forenames>BC</SPAN></SPAN>, <SPAN class=name><SPAN
class=surname>Barton</SPAN> <SPAN class=forenames>BA</SPAN></SPAN><SPAN
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class=reference-journal-title><EM>Transactions of the American Fisheries
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class=reference-volume><STRONG>117</STRONG></SPAN>: <SPAN
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<SCRIPT language=JavaScript>print_JCIT('TYPE=JCIT&BIBID=BIB22_17&SNM=Maule&SNM=Schreck&SNM=Samual&SNM=Barton&FNM=AG&FNM=CB&FNM=BC&FNM=BA&ATL=Physiological effects of collecting and transporting emigrating juvenile chinook salmon past dams on the Columbia River&JTL=Transactions of the American Fisheries Society&PYR=1988&VID=117&PPF=245');</SCRIPT>
<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/reflink?object=TYPE%3DJCIT%26BIBID%3D22_17%26SNM%3DMaule%26SNM%3DSchreck%26SNM%3DSamual%26SNM%3DBarton%26FNM%3DAG%26FNM%3DCB%26FNM%3DBC%26FNM%3DBA%26ATL%3DPhysiological%20effects%20of%20collecting%20and%20transporting%20emigrating%20juvenile%20chinook%20salmon%20past%20dams%20on%20the%20Columbia%20River%26JTL%3DTransactions%20of%20the%20American%20Fisheries%20Society%26PYR%3D1988%26VID%3D117%26PPF%3D245%26ADOI%3D10.1111/j.1753-5131.2008.01003.x%26EVIEW%3DY%26ENABLEISI%3DN%26ENABLECAS%3DY%26ENABLEPM%3DY"
target=_top><SPAN><FONT
color=#336699>Links</FONT></SPAN></A> </P>
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<SCRIPT language=JavaScript>print_JCIT('TYPE=JCIT&BIBID=BIB23_18&SNM=Mazeaud&SNM=Mazeaud&SNM=Donaldson&FNM=MM&FNM=F&FNM=EM&ATL=Primary and secondary effects of stress in fish: some new data with a general review&JTL=Transactions of the American Fisheries Society&PYR=1977&VID=106&PPF=201');</SCRIPT>
<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/reflink?object=TYPE%3DJCIT%26BIBID%3D23_18%26SNM%3DMazeaud%26SNM%3DMazeaud%26SNM%3DDonaldson%26FNM%3DMM%26FNM%3DF%26FNM%3DEM%26ATL%3DPrimary%20and%20secondary%20effects%20of%20stress%20in%20fish%3A%20some%20new%20data%20with%20a%20general%20review%26JTL%3DTransactions%20of%20the%20American%20Fisheries%20Society%26PYR%3D1977%26VID%3D106%26PPF%3D201%26ADOI%3D10.1111/j.1753-5131.2008.01003.x%26EVIEW%3DY%26ENABLEISI%3DN%26ENABLECAS%3DY%26ENABLEPM%3DY"
target=_top><SPAN><FONT
color=#336699>Links</FONT></SPAN></A> </P>
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<P class=reference-list-para id=b24><A class=invisible-anchor
name=b24><FONT color=#336699> </FONT></A><SPAN
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<SPAN class=forenames>PM</SPAN></SPAN>, <SPAN class=name><SPAN
class=surname>Simco</SPAN> <SPAN class=forenames>BA</SPAN></SPAN>, <SPAN
class=name><SPAN class=surname>Parker</SPAN> <SPAN
class=forenames>NC</SPAN></SPAN><SPAN class=addresses></SPAN></SPAN>
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class=reference-document-title>Influence of water hardness and salts on
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after transport</SPAN>. <SPAN
class=reference-journal-title><EM>Transactions of the American Fisheries
Society</EM></SPAN> <SPAN
class=reference-volume><STRONG>120</STRONG></SPAN>: <SPAN
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<SCRIPT language=JavaScript>print_JCIT('TYPE=JCIT&BIBID=BIB24_19&SNM=Mazic&SNM=Simco&SNM=Parker&FNM=PM&FNM=BA&FNM=NC&ATL=Influence of water hardness and salts on survival and physiological characteristics of striped bass during and after transport&JTL=Transactions of the American Fisheries Society&PYR=1991&VID=120&PPF=121');</SCRIPT>
<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/reflink?object=TYPE%3DJCIT%26BIBID%3D24_19%26SNM%3DMazic%26SNM%3DSimco%26SNM%3DParker%26FNM%3DPM%26FNM%3DBA%26FNM%3DNC%26ATL%3DInfluence%20of%20water%20hardness%20and%20salts%20on%20survival%20and%20physiological%20characteristics%20of%20striped%20bass%20during%20and%20after%20transport%26JTL%3DTransactions%20of%20the%20American%20Fisheries%20Society%26PYR%3D1991%26VID%3D120%26PPF%3D121%26ADOI%3D10.1111/j.1753-5131.2008.01003.x%26EVIEW%3DY%26ENABLEISI%3DN%26ENABLECAS%3DY%26ENABLEPM%3DY"
target=_top><SPAN><FONT
color=#336699>Links</FONT></SPAN></A> </P>
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<P class=reference-list-para id=b25><A class=invisible-anchor
name=b25><FONT color=#336699> </FONT></A><SPAN
class=author-info><SPAN class=name><SPAN class=surname>McDonald</SPAN>
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<SPAN class=reference-publisher>Cambridge University Press</SPAN>, <SPAN
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name=b26><FONT color=#336699> </FONT></A><SPAN
class=author-info><SPAN class=name><SPAN class=surname>McDonald</SPAN>
<SPAN class=forenames>DG</SPAN></SPAN>, <SPAN class=name><SPAN
class=surname>Goldstein</SPAN> <SPAN class=forenames>MD</SPAN></SPAN>,
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lake trout, and splake to transport stress</SPAN>. <SPAN
class=reference-journal-title><EM>Transactions of the American Fisheries
Society</EM></SPAN> <SPAN
class=reference-volume><STRONG>122</STRONG></SPAN>: <SPAN
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<SCRIPT language=JavaScript>print_JCIT('TYPE=JCIT&BIBID=BIB26_20&SNM=McDonald&SNM=Goldstein&SNM=Mitton&FNM=DG&FNM=MD&FNM=C&ATL=Responses of hatchery-reared brook trout, lake trout, and splake to transport stress&JTL=Transactions of the American Fisheries Society&PYR=1993&VID=122&PPF=1127');</SCRIPT>
<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/reflink?object=TYPE%3DJCIT%26BIBID%3D26_20%26SNM%3DMcDonald%26SNM%3DGoldstein%26SNM%3DMitton%26FNM%3DDG%26FNM%3DMD%26FNM%3DC%26ATL%3DResponses%20of%20hatchery-reared%20brook%20trout%2C%20lake%20trout%2C%20and%20splake%20to%20transport%20stress%26JTL%3DTransactions%20of%20the%20American%20Fisheries%20Society%26PYR%3D1993%26VID%3D122%26PPF%3D1127%26ADOI%3D10.1111/j.1753-5131.2008.01003.x%26EVIEW%3DY%26ENABLEISI%3DN%26ENABLECAS%3DY%26ENABLEPM%3DY"
target=_top><SPAN><FONT
color=#336699>Links</FONT></SPAN></A> </P>
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<SCRIPT language=JavaScript>print_JCIT('TYPE=JCIT&BIBID=BIB29_21&SNM=Phillips&SNM=Brockway&FNM=AM&FNM=DR&ATL=Effect of starvation, water temperature, and sodium amytal on the metabolic rate of brook trout&JTL=The Progressive Fish Culturist&PYR=1954&VID=April&PPF=65');</SCRIPT>
<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/reflink?object=TYPE%3DJCIT%26BIBID%3D29_21%26SNM%3DPhillips%26SNM%3DBrockway%26FNM%3DAM%26FNM%3DDR%26ATL%3DEffect%20of%20starvation%2C%20water%20temperature%2C%20and%20sodium%20amytal%20on%20the%20metabolic%20rate%20of%20brook%20trout%26JTL%3DThe%20Progressive%20Fish%20Culturist%26PYR%3D1954%26VID%3DApril%26PPF%3D65%26ADOI%3D10.1111/j.1753-5131.2008.01003.x%26EVIEW%3DY%26ENABLEISI%3DN%26ENABLECAS%3DY%26ENABLEPM%3DY"
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<SCRIPT language=JavaScript>print_JCIT('TYPE=JCIT&BIBID=BIB31_22&SNM=Portz&SNM=Woodley&SNM=JJ&FNM=DE&FNM=CM&FNM=Cech&ATL=Stress-associated impacts of short-term holding on fishes&JTL=Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries&PYR=2006&VID=16&PPF=125');</SCRIPT>
<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/reflink?object=TYPE%3DJCIT%26BIBID%3D31_22%26SNM%3DPortz%26SNM%3DWoodley%26SNM%3DJJ%26FNM%3DDE%26FNM%3DCM%26FNM%3DCech%26ATL%3DStress-associated%20impacts%20of%20short-term%20holding%20on%20fishes%26JTL%3DReviews%20in%20Fish%20Biology%20and%20Fisheries%26PYR%3D2006%26VID%3D16%26PPF%3D125%26ADOI%3D10.1111/j.1753-5131.2008.01003.x%26EVIEW%3DY%26ENABLEISI%3DN%26ENABLECAS%3DY%26ENABLEPM%3DY"
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<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/reflink?object=TYPE%3DJCIT%26BIBID%3D32_23%26SNM%3DRobertson%26SNM%3DThomas%26SNM%3DArnold%26FNM%3DL%26FNM%3DP%26FNM%3DCR%26ATL%3DPlasma%20cortisol%20and%20secondary%20stress%20responses%20of%20cultured%20red%20drum%20%28Scianenops%20ocellatus%29%20to%20several%20transportation%20procedures%26JTL%3DAquaculture%26PYR%3D1988%26VID%3D68%26PPF%3D115%26ADOI%3D10.1111/j.1753-5131.2008.01003.x%26EVIEW%3DY%26ENABLEISI%3DN%26ENABLECAS%3DY%26ENABLEPM%3DY"
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<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/reflink?object=TYPE%3DJCIT%26BIBID%3D36_26%26SNM%3DSwanson%26SNM%3DMager%26SNM%3DDoroshov%26SNM%3DCech%26FNM%3DC%26FNM%3DRC%26FNM%3DI%26FNM%3DJJ%26ATL%3DUse%20of%20salts%2C%20anesthetics%2C%20and%20polymers%20to%20minimize%20handling%20and%20transport%20mortality%20in%20delta%20smelt%26JTL%3DTransactions%20of%20the%20American%20Fisheries%20Society%26PYR%3D1996%26VID%3D125%26PPF%3D326%26ADOI%3D10.1111/j.1753-5131.2008.01003.x%26EVIEW%3DY%26ENABLEISI%3DN%26ENABLECAS%3DY%26ENABLEPM%3DY"
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<SCRIPT language=JavaScript>print_JCIT('TYPE=JCIT&BIBID=BIB38_27&SNM=Tomasso&SNM=Davis&SNM=Parker&FNM=JR&FNM=KB&FNM=NC&ATL=Plasma corticosteroid and electrolyte dynamics of hybrid striped bass (white bass striped bass) during netting and hauling&JTL=Proceedings of the World Mariculture Society&PYR=1980&VID=11&PPF=303');</SCRIPT>
<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/reflink?object=TYPE%3DJCIT%26BIBID%3D38_27%26SNM%3DTomasso%26SNM%3DDavis%26SNM%3DParker%26FNM%3DJR%26FNM%3DKB%26FNM%3DNC%26ATL%3DPlasma%20corticosteroid%20and%20electrolyte%20dynamics%20of%20hybrid%20striped%20bass%20%28white%20bass%20%20%20striped%20bass%29%20during%20netting%20and%20hauling%26JTL%3DProceedings%20of%20the%20World%20Mariculture%20Society%26PYR%3D1980%26VID%3D11%26PPF%3D303%26ADOI%3D10.1111/j.1753-5131.2008.01003.x%26EVIEW%3DY%26ENABLEISI%3DN%26ENABLECAS%3DY%26ENABLEPM%3DY"
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<A
href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/reflink?object=TYPE%3DJCIT%26BIBID%3D41_28%26SNM%3DWeirich%26SNM%3DTomasso%26FNM%3DCR%26FNM%3DJR%26ATL%3DConfinement-%20and%20transport-induced%20stress%20on%20red%20drum%20juveniles%3A%20effects%20of%20salinity%26JTL%3DThe%20Progressive%20Fish%20Culturist%26PYR%3D1991%26VID%3D53%26PPF%3D146%26ADOI%3D10.1111/j.1753-5131.2008.01003.x%26EVIEW%3DY%26ENABLEISI%3DN%26ENABLECAS%3DY%26ENABLEPM%3DY"
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class=surname>Van Tassel</SPAN> <SPAN class=forenames>JE</SPAN></SPAN>,
<SPAN class=name><SPAN class=surname>Wooley</SPAN> <SPAN
class=forenames>CM</SPAN></SPAN><SPAN class=addresses></SPAN></SPAN>
(<SPAN class=reference-date>1990</SPAN>) <SPAN
class=reference-document-title>Collection, transportation, and handling
of striped bass brood stock</SPAN>. <SPAN
class=reference-miscellaneoustext>In</SPAN>: <SPAN
class=author-info><SPAN class=name><SPAN class=surname>Harrell</SPAN>
<SPAN class=forenames>RM</SPAN></SPAN>, <SPAN class=name><SPAN
class=surname>Kerby</SPAN> <SPAN class=forenames>JH</SPAN></SPAN>, <SPAN
class=name><SPAN class=surname>Monton</SPAN> <SPAN
class=forenames>RV</SPAN></SPAN><SPAN class=addresses></SPAN></SPAN>
(<SPAN class=reference-miscellaneoustext>eds</SPAN>) <SPAN
class=reference-book-title><EM>Culture and Propagation of Striped Bass
and its Hybrids</EM></SPAN>, <SPAN
class=reference-miscellaneoustext>pp</SPAN>. <SPAN
class=reference-page>39</SPAN>–<SPAN class=reference-page>42</SPAN>.
<SPAN class=reference-publisher>American Fisheries Society</SPAN>, <SPAN
class=reference-address>Bethesda,
MD</SPAN>.</P></LI></UL></DIV></DIV></DIV></DIV></TD></TR></TBODY></TABLE></DIV></FONT></DIV></BODY></HTML>