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<DIV class=articleTitle>
<DIV id=productTitle sizcache="3" sizset="5">Journal of Applied Ecology</DIV>
<DIV class=articleDetails sizcache="3" sizset="5"><A
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jpe.2011.48.issue-6/issuetoc"
shape=rect><FONT color=#000000><SPAN id=volumeNumber>Volume 48</SPAN>, <SPAN
id=issueNumber>Issue 6</SPAN>, </FONT></A><SPAN id=issuePages>pages
1432–1440</SPAN>, <SPAN id=issueDate>December 2011</SPAN></DIV>
<DIV class=articleDetails sizcache="3" sizset="5"><SPAN>
<DIV id=publishedOnlineDate>Article first published online: 19 JUL 2011</DIV>
<DIV id=doi>DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x</DIV></SPAN></DIV></DIV>
<DIV class=articleTitle> </DIV>
<DIV class=articleTitle><FONT size=4>Small-scale fisheries of Peru: a major sink
for marine turtles in the Pacific</FONT></DIV>
<DIV>
<DIV id=cr1>Joanna Alfaro-Shigueto<SUP><FONT size=1>1,2</FONT></SUP>, Jeffrey C.
Mangel<SUP><FONT size=1>1,2</FONT></SUP>, Francisco Bernedo<SUP><FONT
size=1>2</FONT></SUP>, Peter H. Dutton<SUP><FONT size=1>3</FONT></SUP>, Jeffrey
A. Seminoff<SUP><FONT size=1>3</FONT></SUP>, Brendan J. Godley<SUP><FONT
size=1>1,*</FONT></SUP></DIV></DIV>
<DIV id=publishedOnlineDate><SUP>1</SUP> Marine Turtle Research Group, Centre
for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Cornwall Campus, Penryn,
Cornwall, TR10 9EZ, UK<SUP>2</SUP> Pro Delphinus, Octavio Bernal 572-5, Lima 11,
Peru<SUP>3</SUP> NOAA-National Marine Fisheries Service, Southwest Fisheries
Science Center, 8604 La Jolla Shores Drive, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
Correspondence: Brendan J. Godley, E-mail: <!--TODO: clickthrough URL--><A
title="Link to email address" href="mailto:b.j.godley@exeter.ac.uk"
shape=rect><FONT color=#007e8a>b.j.godley@exeter.ac.uk</FONT></A></DIV>
<DIV>
<DIV id=additionalInformation>
<DIV style="CLEAR: left">
<UL id=footnotes><FONT color=#007e8a></FONT></UL>
<DIV id=publicationHistoryDetails jQuery1320197310584="11">
<H4>Summary</H4></DIV></DIV></DIV>
<DIV id=productContent>
<DIV id=fulltext xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<DIV id=abstract>
<DIV class=para>
<P><B>1.</B> Over the last few decades, evidence of marine vertebrate bycatch
has been collected for a range of industrial fisheries. It has recently been
acknowledged that large impacts may also result from similar interactions with
small-scale fisheries (SSF) due largely to their diffuse effort and large number
of vessels in operation. Marine mammals, seabirds, turtles as well as some shark
species have been reported as being impacted by SSF worldwide.</P></DIV>
<DIV class=para>
<P><B>2.</B> From 2000 to 2007, we used both shore-based and onboard observer
programmes from three SSF ports in Peru to assess the impact on marine turtles
of small-scale longline, bottom set nets and driftnet fisheries.</P></DIV>
<DIV class=para>
<P><B>3.</B> We reported a total of 807 sea turtles captured, 91·8% of which
were released alive. For these three sites alone, we estimated <EM>c.</EM> 5900
turtles captured annually (3200 loggerhead turtles <EM>Caretta caretta</EM>,
2400 green turtles <EM>Chelonia mydas</EM>, 240 olive ridleys <EM>Lepidochelys
olivacea</EM> and 70 leatherback turtles <EM>Dermochelys
coriacea</EM>).</P></DIV>
<DIV class=para>
<P><B>4.</B> SSF in Peru are widespread and numerous (>100 ports, >9500
vessels, >37 000 fishers), and our observed effort constituted
<EM>c.</EM> 1% of longline and net deployments. We suggest that the number of
turtles captured per year is likely to be in the tens of thousands. Thus, the
impacts of Peruvian SSF have the potential to severely impact sea turtles in the
Pacific especially green, loggerhead and leatherback turtles.</P></DIV>
<DIV class=para>
<P><B>5.</B> Implications of the human use of turtle products as ‘marine
bushmeat’ are also raised as an important issue. Although such utilization is
illegal, it is difficult to foresee how it can be managed without addressing the
constraints to the livelihoods of those depending almost entirely on coastal
resources.</P></DIV>
<DIV class=para>
<P><B>6.</B> <EM>Syntheses and applications</EM>. Our analysis demonstrates
that, despite logistical challenges, it is feasible to estimate the bycatch per
unit of effort in SSF by combining methods that account for fishing effort and
bycatch, such as using onboard and shore-based observers. We highlight sea
turtle bycatch in SSF in the southeast Pacific as a major conservation concern
but also suggest possible paths for mitigation.</P>
<P>********************************</P>
<DIV class=headingCont>
<H3>Introduction</H3></DIV>
<DIV class=section>Industrial fisheries have been highlighted as a major source
of bycatch and mortality for a diversity of marine vertebrates such as sharks
(<A class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b10"
shape=rect rel=references:#b10 jQuery1320197479327="4"><FONT color=#007e8a>Baum
<EM>et al.</EM> 2003</FONT></A>), sea turtles (<A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b41"
shape=rect rel=references:#b41 jQuery1320197479327="5"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Lewison, Freeman & Crowder 2004</FONT></A>), seabirds (<A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b13"
shape=rect rel=references:#b13 jQuery1320197479327="6"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Brothers 1991</FONT></A>) and marine mammals (<A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b42"
shape=rect rel=references:#b42 jQuery1320197479327="7"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Lewison <EM>et al.</EM> 2004</FONT></A>). Indeed, high seas
industrial driftnet and longline fisheries have been implicated as a key factor
pushing some populations close to extirpation (<A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b63"
shape=rect rel=references:#b63 jQuery1320197479327="8"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Spotila <EM>et al.</EM> 2000</FONT></A>; <A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b10"
shape=rect rel=references:#b10 jQuery1320197479327="9"><FONT color=#007e8a>Baum
<EM>et al.</EM> 2003</FONT></A>; <A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b50"
shape=rect rel=references:#b50 jQuery1320197479327="10"><FONT color=#007e8a>Nel
& Taylor 2003</FONT></A>). In some cases, this has resulted in fishery
closures (e.g. high seas driftnets were closed as a result of <A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b65"
shape=rect rel=references:#b65 jQuery1320197479327="11"><FONT
color=#007e8a>United Nations General Assembly Resolution 46/215</FONT></A>). In
industrial longline fisheries, concern over bycatch (here defined as unused or
unmanaged catch, per <A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b20"
shape=rect rel=references:#b20 jQuery1320197479327="12"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Davies <EM>et al.</EM> 2009</FONT></A>) has resulted in
time-area closures (e.g. the Hawaiian longline fishery, <A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b51"
shape=rect rel=references:#b51 jQuery1320197479327="13"><FONT color=#007e8a>NMFS
2000</FONT></A>), along with the ongoing development of mitigation methods to
reduce bycatch, e.g. increased fishing line weights to speed sink rates (<A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b14"
shape=rect rel=references:#b14 jQuery1320197479327="14"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Brothers, Cooper & Løokkeborg 1999</FONT></A>), streamers to
deter seabird capture (<A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b45"
shape=rect rel=references:#b45 jQuery1320197479327="15"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Løkkeborg & Robertson 2002</FONT></A>) and the use of circle
hooks to minimize turtle bycatch (<A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b72"
shape=rect rel=references:#b72 jQuery1320197479327="16"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Watson <EM>et al.</EM> 2005</FONT></A>).</DIV>
<DIV class=para>
<P>In recent years, it has become apparent that bycatch in small-scale fisheries
(SSF) is also an important source of mortality for marine vertebrates (<A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b62"
shape=rect rel=references:#b62 jQuery1320197479327="17"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Soykan <EM>et al.</EM> 2008</FONT></A>; <A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b48"
shape=rect rel=references:#b48 jQuery1320197479327="18"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Moore <EM>et al.</EM> 2010</FONT></A>). Small-scale fisheries
are mostly defined by smaller sizes of vessels and tonnage capacity and minimal
level of mechanization (<A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b17"
shape=rect rel=references:#b17 jQuery1320197479327="19"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Chuenpagdee <EM>et al.</EM> 2006</FONT></A>; <A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b37"
shape=rect rel=references:#b37 jQuery1320197479327="20"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Jacquet & Pauly 2008</FONT></A>); however, both industrial and
SSF can have a significant impact on ecosystems (<A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b37"
shape=rect rel=references:#b37 jQuery1320197479327="21"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Jacquet & Pauly 2008</FONT></A>). SSF operate worldwide, and
the term is often used interchangeably for ‘artisanal’ fisheries, referring to a
subgroup of coastal fisheries (<A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b17"
shape=rect rel=references:#b17 jQuery1320197479327="22"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Chuenpagdee <EM>et al.</EM> 2006</FONT></A>).</P></DIV>
<DIV class=para>
<P>For marine turtles, SSF using nets have been shown to be a major source of
bycatch (<A class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b32"
shape=rect rel=references:#b32 jQuery1320197479327="23"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Frazier & Brito 1990</FONT></A>; <A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b16"
shape=rect rel=references:#b16 jQuery1320197479327="24"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Chan, Liew & Mazlan 1988</FONT></A>; <A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b15"
shape=rect rel=references:#b15 jQuery1320197479327="25"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Casale 2010</FONT></A>), as have some SSF using longlines (<A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b53"
shape=rect rel=references:#b53 jQuery1320197479327="26"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Peckham <EM>et al.</EM> 2007</FONT></A>; <A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b4"
shape=rect rel=references:#b4 jQuery1320197479327="27"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Alfaro-Shigueto <EM>et al.</EM> 2008</FONT></A>; <A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b15"
shape=rect rel=references:#b15 jQuery1320197479327="28"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Casale 2010</FONT></A>). Although captures by individual fishers
may not always be substantial, fleets can often be sizeable, particularly in
developing countries where SSF are often the mainstay of the fishing sector (<A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b28"
shape=rect rel=references:#b28 jQuery1320197479327="29"><FONT color=#007e8a>FAO
2005</FONT></A>). The problem of bycatch in SSF is often accentuated by the fact
that many SSF operate in nations where there are few protective measures in
place and limited enforcement capabilities (<A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b17"
shape=rect rel=references:#b17 jQuery1320197479327="30"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Chuenpagdee <EM>et al.</EM> 2006</FONT></A>; <A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b22"
shape=rect rel=references:#b22 jQuery1320197479327="31"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Dutton & Squires 2008</FONT></A>). Furthermore, bycatch rates
are often difficult to assess because of the nature of SSF, i.e. diffuse effort,
remote landing sites and social marginalization (<A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b17"
shape=rect rel=references:#b17 jQuery1320197479327="32"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Chuenpagdee <EM>et al.</EM> 2006</FONT></A>; <A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b37"
shape=rect rel=references:#b37 jQuery1320197479327="33"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Jacquet & Pauly 2008</FONT></A>).</P></DIV>
<DIV class=para>
<P>Within the Peruvian fisheries sector, SSF are particularly important because
of their role in food security, but also as a source of employment (<A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b5"
shape=rect rel=references:#b5 jQuery1320197479327="34"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Alfaro-Shigueto <EM>et al.</EM> 2010</FONT></A>). Operating
along the entire Peruvian coastline, the SSF sector has rapidly expanded in
recent decades (i.e. 34% and 54% increase in the number of fishermen and
vessels, respectively; <A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b5"
shape=rect rel=references:#b5 jQuery1320197479327="35"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Alfaro-Shigueto <EM>et al.</EM> 2010</FONT></A>). The main
fishing gears used include purse seines, gillnets, handlines, diving and
longlines (<A class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b25"
shape=rect rel=references:#b25 jQuery1320197479327="36"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Estrella Arellano & Swartzman 2010</FONT></A>), with longlines
exhibiting the steepest increases (<A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b5"
shape=rect rel=references:#b5 jQuery1320197479327="37"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Alfaro-Shigueto <EM>et al.</EM> 2010</FONT></A>). Given the
global concern regarding bycatch in gillnets and longlines, <A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b5"
shape=rect rel=references:#b5 jQuery1320197479327="38"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Alfaro-Shigueto <EM>et al.</EM> (2010)</FONT></A> sought to
estimate the magnitude of the effort in these two sectors and showed that
despite their definition as small scale, the magnitude of these fleets and their
fishing effort are vast and are of concern with regard to their long-term
sustainability and potential interactions with large marine
vertebrates.</P></DIV>
<DIV class=para>
<P>Five species of marine turtles have been recorded as occurring in Peruvian
waters. <A class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b31"
shape=rect rel=references:#b31 jQuery1320197479327="39"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Frazier (1981)</FONT></A> and <A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b36"
shape=rect rel=references:#b36 jQuery1320197479327="40"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Hays-Brown & Brown (1982)</FONT></A> visited several landing
sites and ports along the coast, from Talara (3°S) to Pisco (13°S), and reported
the presence of four species including the green turtle <EM>Chelonia mydas</EM>
Linnaeus, leatherback turtle <EM>Dermochelys coriacea</EM> Vandelli, olive
ridley turtle <EM>Lepidochelys olivacea</EM> Eschscholtz and hawksbill turtle
<EM>Eretmochelys imbricata</EM> Linnaeus. The regular presence of the loggerhead
turtle <EM>Caretta caretta</EM> Linnaeus was not confirmed until the early
2000s, after the monitored area was extended to southern fishing ports (<A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b2"
shape=rect rel=references:#b2 jQuery1320197479327="41"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Alfaro-Shigueto <EM>et al.</EM> 2004</FONT></A>).</P></DIV>
<DIV class=para>
<P>Research suggests that the waters of Peru are primarily used as a foraging
habitat, with vagrant nesting events (<A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b36"
shape=rect rel=references:#b36 jQuery1320197479327="42"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Hays-Brown & Brown 1982</FONT></A>; <A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b38"
shape=rect rel=references:#b38 jQuery1320197479327="43"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Kelez <EM>et al.</EM> 2009</FONT></A>). Flipper tag returns
as well as genetic and telemetry studies have begun to elaborate linkages with
distant nesting rookeries and have helped elucidate the boundaries of the
putative Regional Management Units (RMUs as defined in <A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b69"
shape=rect rel=references:#b69 jQuery1320197479327="44"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Wallace <EM>et al.</EM> 2010b</FONT></A>) interacting with
the Peruvian fisheries. Green turtles visiting Peru are comprised, at least
partly, of individuals from the Galapagos Islands (<A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b36"
shape=rect rel=references:#b36 jQuery1320197479327="45"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Hays-Brown & Brown 1982</FONT></A>; <A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b60"
shape=rect rel=references:#b60 jQuery1320197479327="46"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Seminoff <EM>et al.</EM> 2008</FONT></A>) and Mexico (<A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b66"
shape=rect rel=references:#b66 jQuery1320197479327="47"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Velez-Zuazo & Kelez 2010</FONT></A>), while loggerhead turtles
are linked to the Australian and New Caledonian nesting beaches (<A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b2"
shape=rect rel=references:#b2 jQuery1320197479327="48"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Alfaro-Shigueto <EM>et al.</EM> 2004</FONT></A>; <A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b11"
shape=rect rel=references:#b11 jQuery1320197479327="49"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Boyle <EM>et al.</EM> 2009</FONT></A>). Genetic analysis
indicates that leatherback turtles off Peru originate from rookeries both in the
eastern (i.e. Mexico and Costa Rica) and in the western Pacific (i.e. Papua New
Guinea, Indonesia and Solomon Islands) (<A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b23"
shape=rect rel=references:#b23 jQuery1320197479327="50"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Dutton <EM>et al.</EM> 2010</FONT></A>), while satellite
tracking studies (<A class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b24"
shape=rect rel=references:#b24 jQuery1320197479327="51"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Eckert & Sarti 1997</FONT></A>; <A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b61"
shape=rect rel=references:#b61 jQuery1320197479327="52"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Shillinger <EM>et al.</EM> 2008</FONT></A>) have shown the
linkage between Mexican and Costa Rican nesting beaches and putative foraging
grounds off Peru for this species. Tagging and genetic sampling indicate that
olive ridley turtles originate from Costa Rica, Colombia and Mexico (<A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b75"
shape=rect rel=references:#b75 jQuery1320197479327="53"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Zeballos & Arias-Schreiber 2001</FONT></A>; <A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b66"
shape=rect rel=references:#b66 jQuery1320197479327="54"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Velez-Zuazo & Kelez 2010</FONT></A>). Little information is,
as yet, available for the relatively rare hawksbill turtles found in Peru, but
the closest known nesting rookery is in continental Ecuador (<A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b33"
shape=rect rel=references:#b33 jQuery1320197479327="55"><FONT color=#007e8a>Gaos
<EM>et al.</EM> 2010</FONT></A>), perhaps serving as the most likely source
population for individuals of this species. Of these species, the eastern
Pacific RMUs for the leatherback turtle and hawksbill turtle are two of the most
severely threatened (<A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b69"
shape=rect rel=references:#b69 jQuery1320197479327="56"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Wallace <EM>et al.</EM> 2010b</FONT></A>).</P></DIV>
<DIV class=para>
<P>An active turtle fishery existed in Peru until the mid-1990s. The estimated
turtle take between the 1960s and the 1980s was reported as some
22 000 turtles year<SUP><FONT size=1>−1</FONT></SUP>, the
majority of which were green turtles (<A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b7"
shape=rect rel=references:#b7 jQuery1320197479327="57"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Aranda & Chandler 1989</FONT></A>). Additionally, <A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b55"
shape=rect rel=references:#b55 jQuery1320197479327="58"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Pritchard & Trebbau (1984)</FONT></A> described Peru as one of
the few countries with a leatherback turtle fishery. In 1976, the Peruvian
government banned the capture of all leatherback turtles and of green turtles
<0·8 m length (<A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b49"
shape=rect rel=references:#b49 jQuery1320197479327="59"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Morales & Vargas 1996</FONT></A>). In 1995, this resolution
was extended to ban capture, retention and commerce of all turtle species.
Furthermore, the 1995 resolution required that bycatch be reported to local
authorities (<A class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b49"
shape=rect rel=references:#b49 jQuery1320197479327="60"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Morales & Vargas 1996</FONT></A>). Nevertheless, after the
ban, information suggested that turtle take continued; indeed, it may have
remained relatively unchanged in magnitude (<A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b26"
shape=rect rel=references:#b26 jQuery1320197479327="61"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Estrella & Guevara-Carrasco 1998</FONT></A>; <A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citations"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b3"
shape=rect rel="references:#b3 #b4" jQuery1320197479327="62"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Alfaro-Shigueto <EM>et al.</EM> 2007, 2008</FONT></A>). Here,
we generate robust estimates of the species composition and magnitude of turtle
captures in four SSF at three sites spanning the Peruvian coast. We aim to
provide an insight into of the impact caused by the Peruvian SSF to several
turtle species, inform SSF bycatch assessment methods and describe how this
information can be used to identify areas where major conservation efforts are
needed to reduce impacts.</P></DIV>
<DIV id=ss2 class=section sizcache="14" sizset="0">
<DIV class=headingCont><FONT size=3><STRONG>Fisheries
Sampled</STRONG></FONT></DIV>
<DIV id=ss3 class=section sizcache="14" sizset="0">
<DIV class=para>
<P>Between 2000 and 2007, data were collected from four key fisheries: bottom
set nets, driftnets and two separate longline fisheries. Bottom set nets
(Constante: 05°35′S, 80°50′W) and driftnets (Salaverry: 08°14′S, 78°59′W) both
targeted a variety of species including rays, sharks and dolphinfish (<A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b5"
shape=rect rel=references:#b5 jQuery1320197479327="63"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Alfaro-Shigueto <EM>et al.</EM> 2010</FONT></A>). The two
longline fisheries (Ilo: 17°38′S, 71°20′W) seasonally targeted either
dolphinfish or sharks and have season-specific gear configurations (e.g.
distance between and depth of branchlines, material of leader, hook sizes) and
are therefore considered separately (<A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b5"
shape=rect rel=references:#b5 jQuery1320197479327="64"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Alfaro-Shigueto <EM>et al.</EM> 2010</FONT></A>). Details by
fishery, sampling periods, number of trips and sets observed are summarized in
<A class=tableLink title="Link to table"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#t1"
shape=rect rel=references:#t1><FONT color=#007e8a>Table 1</FONT></A>. The
descriptive characteristics and the <EM>modus operandi</EM> were detailed in <A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b5"
shape=rect rel=references:#b5 jQuery1320197479327="65"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Alfaro-Shigueto <EM>et al.</EM> (2010)</FONT></A>. The
fishing areas of the vessels from the sampled ports did not overlap (<A
class=figureLink title="Link to figure"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#f1"
shape=rect rel=references:#f1><FONT
color=#007e8a>Fig. 1</FONT></A>).</P></DIV>
<DIV id=t1 class=table>
<TABLE class=topbotR>
<CAPTION><SPAN class=tTitle><FONT size=1><SPAN
class=label>Table 1. </SPAN> Overview of the four fisheries
studied. Months of operation of the fishery (season). Onboard observer: period
of effort, number of trips and sets monitored, including the
mean ± SD (range) of number of sets per trip, total effort observed
in area of net (net fisheries) or number of hooks (longline fisheries).
Shore-based observers: the number of fishing trips and estimated total sets
per year (Bottom set net: 2001–2004; Driftnet: 2005–2007; Longline
(dolphinfish): 2004–2006; Longline (sharks): 2004–2006)</FONT>
</SPAN></CAPTION>
<THEAD class="hLeft vBottom">
<TR class=rsep>
<TH rowSpan=2>Fishery</TH>
<TH rowSpan=2>Season</TH>
<TH colSpan=5>Onboard observers</TH>
<TH rowSpan=2> </TH>
<TH colSpan=4>Shore-based observers</TH></TR>
<TR class=rsep>
<TH>Period</TH>
<TH>No. Trips</TH>
<TH>No. Sets</TH>
<TH>Sets per trip</TH>
<TH>Total effort</TH>
<TH>Year 1</TH>
<TH>Year 2</TH>
<TH>Year 3</TH>
<TH>Year 4</TH></TR></THEAD>
<TBODY class="hLeft vTop">
<TR class=none>
<TD rowSpan=2>Bottom set net</TD>
<TD rowSpan=2>Year round</TD>
<TD rowSpan=2>Jan 00–Dec 06</TD>
<TD rowSpan=2>32</TD>
<TD rowSpan=2>39</TD>
<TD rowSpan=2>1·2 ± 0·39 (1–2)</TD>
<TD rowSpan=2>87·6 km</TD>
<TD>Trips</TD>
<TD>300</TD>
<TD>187</TD>
<TD>272</TD>
<TD>540</TD></TR>
<TR class=none>
<TD>Sets</TD>
<TD>360</TD>
<TD>224</TD>
<TD>326</TD>
<TD>648</TD></TR>
<TR class=none>
<TD rowSpan=2>Driftnet</TD>
<TD rowSpan=2>Year round</TD>
<TD rowSpan=2>Jan 05–Dec 07</TD>
<TD rowSpan=2>55</TD>
<TD rowSpan=2>404</TD>
<TD rowSpan=2>7·4 ± 2·2 (2–11)</TD>
<TD rowSpan=2>750·7 km</TD>
<TD>Trips</TD>
<TD>572</TD>
<TD>593</TD>
<TD>600</TD>
<TD> </TD></TR>
<TR class=none>
<TD>Sets</TD>
<TD>3718</TD>
<TD>3855</TD>
<TD>3900</TD>
<TD> </TD></TR>
<TR class=none>
<TD rowSpan=2>Longline (dolphinfish)</TD>
<TD rowSpan=2>Dec–Mar</TD>
<TD rowSpan=2>Dec 03–Mar 07</TD>
<TD rowSpan=2>88</TD>
<TD rowSpan=2>619</TD>
<TD rowSpan=2>7·03 ± 3·5 (1–16)</TD>
<TD rowSpan=2>419 338 hooks</TD>
<TD>Trips</TD>
<TD>543</TD>
<TD>794</TD>
<TD>641</TD>
<TD> </TD></TR>
<TR class=none>
<TD>Sets</TD>
<TD>4018</TD>
<TD>5876</TD>
<TD>4743</TD>
<TD> </TD></TR>
<TR class=none>
<TD rowSpan=2>Longline (shark)</TD>
<TD rowSpan=2>Apr–Nov</TD>
<TD rowSpan=2>Apr 04–Nov 07</TD>
<TD rowSpan=2>89</TD>
<TD rowSpan=2>714</TD>
<TD rowSpan=2>8·1 ± 2·8 (2–14)</TD>
<TD rowSpan=2>533 753 hooks</TD>
<TD>Trips</TD>
<TD>236</TD>
<TD>233</TD>
<TD>224</TD>
<TD> </TD></TR>
<TR class=none>
<TD>Sets</TD>
<TD>1841</TD>
<TD>1817</TD>
<TD>1747</TD>
<TD> </TD></TR></TBODY></TABLE></DIV>
<DIV id=f1 class="figure hh" sizcache="14" sizset="0">
<DIV id=f1_caption class=caption>
<P><SPAN class=label><STRONG>Figure 1. </STRONG></SPAN> Fisheries sampled
(N to S): Constante (bottom set nets), Salaverry (driftnets) and Ilo
(longlines). Fishing areas are indicated by polygons and represent each of the
grounds used by each fishery based on set locations (represented by dots).
Species composition of turtle bycatch for each fishery indicated in a pie
chart.</P>
<P class=downloadToPowerpoint><A
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/figure.pptx?figureAssetHref=image_n/JPE_2040_f1.gif"
shape=rect><FONT color=#007e8a>Download figure to
PowerPoint</FONT></A></P></DIV><A class=figZoom title="Link to full-size figure"
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<DIV id=ss4 class=section>
<H4>Onboard Observers</H4>
<DIV class=para>
<P>To obtain accurate information on the bycatch per unit of effort (BPUE) of
turtle bycatch, we had onboard observers operating in each of the fisheries
studied (cf. <A class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b46"
shape=rect rel=references:#b46 jQuery1320197479327="66"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Mangel <EM>et al.</EM> 2010</FONT></A>). Observers were
trained in sea turtle species identification and in obtaining biometric
measurements (<A class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b4"
shape=rect rel=references:#b4 jQuery1320197479327="67"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Alfaro-Shigueto <EM>et al.</EM> 2008</FONT></A>). To avoid
interference with data collection, observers did not participate in fisheries
operations. Observers recorded the number, associated effort (km of net, number
of hooks) and location of all fishing sets and turtle bycatch events during the
fishing trip. Observations were spatially referenced using a handheld GPS. Using
a flexible measuring tape, observers obtained the curved carapace length (CCL).
Released turtles were double tagged with inconel tags (Model 681; National Band
and Tag Company, Newport, KY, USA). For injured and comatose turtles, handling
and resuscitation techniques were followed as described by the Southeast
Fisheries Science Center, USA (<!--TODO: clickthrough URL--><A
title="Link to external resource: http://www.sefsc.noaa.gov/species/turtles/observers.htm"
href="http://www.sefsc.noaa.gov/species/turtles/observers.htm" shape=rect><FONT
color=#007e8a>http://www.sefsc.noaa.gov/species/turtles/observers.htm</FONT></A>).
For each capture event, observers recorded whether the turtle was (i) entangled,
(ii) hooked or (iii) entangled and hooked, whether it was alive or dead and
whether it was released alive, discarded dead or retained for consumption or
commerce. Logistical constraints precluded the gathering of observer data for
the months of February, July and August at Constante port. For these months, we
used an interpolated average BPUE at this site of the month before and
after.</P></DIV></DIV>
<DIV id=ss5 class=section>
<H4>Shore-Based Observers</H4>
<DIV class=para>
<P>For each fishery sampled, shore-based observers monitored the number of
fishing trips at the port, length of trip, fishing area and the target species.
Data collection was based upon daily interviews with fishermen and monitoring of
dockside activity. From the daily information, we obtained the mean monthly
number of fishing trips conducted at the sampling site or port for any given
gear (<A class=tableLink title="Link to table"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#t1"
shape=rect rel=references:#t1><FONT
color=#007e8a>Table 1</FONT></A>).</P></DIV></DIV>
<DIV id=ss6 class=section>
<H4>Mapping and Data Analysis</H4>
<DIV class=para>
<P>All spatial analyses and maps were prepared using ESRI ArcMap 9.1 (Redlands,
California, USA). All observer data were managed in a Microsoft Access
relational data base. Bycatch data were obtained from the onboard observer data
for each species/fishery combination, generating a monthly BPUE (BPUE<SUB><FONT
size=1>month</FONT></SUB>), as well as the ratio of bycatch-positive sets
(S<SUB><FONT size=1>positive</FONT></SUB>). As such data are typically left
skewed, we followed the methodology of <A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b46"
shape=rect rel=references:#b46 jQuery1320197479327="68"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Mangel <EM>et al.</EM> (2010)</FONT></A> in estimating the
mean annual catch of small cetaceans. Monthly estimates of the total number of
sets by fishery were generated from the shore-based observers (S<SUB><FONT
size=1>month</FONT></SUB>). Monthly estimates of bycatch (B<SUB><FONT
size=1>month</FONT></SUB>) were derived multiplying BPUE<SUB><FONT
size=1>month</FONT></SUB> by S<SUB><FONT size=1>positive</FONT></SUB> and
S<SUB><FONT size=1>month</FONT></SUB>. Annual estimates (B<SUB><FONT
size=1>total</FONT></SUB>) were derived by summing all monthly estimates
(B<SUB><FONT size=1>month</FONT></SUB>). The combination of data from
shore-based observers allowed estimates to be scaled up to annual totals (see
Appendix S1, Supporting Information for further information).</P></DIV>
<DIV class=para>
<P>To make comparisons among fishing gears in terms of BPUE, we worked with
basic units of turtle catch per set; however, to facilitate comparison with
other studies, catch per km of net and catch per 10<SUP><FONT
size=1>3</FONT></SUP> hooks for longlines were also calculated. Descriptive
statistics are presented as mean ± standard deviation
(SD).</P></DIV></DIV></DIV>
<DIV id=ss7 class=section>
<DIV class=headingCont><FONT size=3><STRONG>Species
Composition</STRONG></FONT></DIV>
<DIV id=ss8 class=section>
<DIV class=para>
<P>In a total of 264 fishing trips observed in the four fisheries studied
(3446 days of fishing; 1776 sets), we recorded the capture of 807 turtles
of four species (<A class=tableLink title="Link to table"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#t2"
shape=rect rel=references:#t2><FONT color=#007e8a>Table 2</FONT></A>):
loggerhead turtles 51·2%; green turtles 41·4%; olive ridley turtles 3·2%;
leatherback turtles 2·1%; for 2·1% of the captures, positive species
identification was not possible. The species composition, however, was markedly
different among sites (<A class=figureLink title="Link to figure"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#f1"
shape=rect rel=references:#f1><FONT color=#007e8a>Fig. 1</FONT></A>), with
turtle bycatch in the net fisheries in the north being dominated by green
turtles (Constante 98·5%; Salaverry 84·9%; <A class=figureLink
title="Link to figure"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#f1"
shape=rect rel=references:#f1><FONT color=#007e8a>Fig. 1</FONT></A>, <A
class=tableLink title="Link to table"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#t2"
shape=rect rel=references:#t2><FONT color=#007e8a>Table 2</FONT></A>),
while turtle bycatch in the longline fisheries from Ilo was dominated by
loggerhead turtles (dolphinfish fishery: 64·2%; shark fishery: 71·1%; <A
class=figureLink title="Link to figure"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#f1"
shape=rect rel=references:#f1><FONT color=#007e8a>Fig. 1</FONT></A>, <A
class=tableLink title="Link to table"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#t2"
shape=rect rel=references:#t2><FONT color=#007e8a>Table 2</FONT></A>)
followed by green turtles (dolphinfish fishery: 31%; shark fishery: 22%). No
bycatch of hawksbill turtles was observed during our sampling.</P></DIV>
<DIV id=t2 class=table>
<TABLE class=topbotR>
<CAPTION><SPAN class=tTitle><FONT size=1><SPAN
class=label>Table 2. </SPAN> Turtles captured. Summary of status
and fate (live/dead, retained/released) and mode of capture (H: hooked, E:
entangled, H/E: both) of the turtle bycatch observed (<EM>n</EM>), per species
by fishery. Proportion of bycatch-positive sets for that species (set+) and
mean bycatch per unit of effort (BPUE) per set are then used to calculate mean
annual estimates (numbers caught, released, retained, dead) using multi-annual
shore-based data (</FONT><A class=tableLink title="Link to table"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#t1"
shape=rect rel=references:#t1><FONT color=#007e8a
size=1>Table 1</FONT></A><FONT size=1>). Mortality per fishery obtained
from animals dead at capture and those retained alive. Note: a small
proportion of turtles were not identified to species in driftnets
(<EM>n</EM> = 3), longline for dolphinfish
(<EM>n</EM> = 11) and longlines for sharks
(<EM>n</EM> = 3)</FONT> </SPAN></CAPTION>
<THEAD class="hLeft vBottom">
<TR class=rsep>
<TH rowSpan=3> </TH>
<TH rowSpan=3>Species (<EM>n</EM>)</TH>
<TH colSpan=4>Fate (%)</TH>
<TH colSpan=3>Capture</TH>
<TH rowSpan=3>Set+</TH>
<TH rowSpan=3>BPUE per set</TH>
<TH rowSpan=3>Mean Catch</TH>
<TH rowSpan=3>Released</TH>
<TH rowSpan=3>Live Retain</TH>
<TH rowSpan=3>Dead</TH>
<TH rowSpan=3>Mortality</TH></TR>
<TR class=norsep>
<TH class=rsep colSpan=2>Live</TH>
<TH class=rsep colSpan=2>Dead</TH>
<TH class=rsep colSpan=3>Mode (%)</TH></TR>
<TR class=rsep>
<TH>Retain</TH>
<TH>Release</TH>
<TH>Retain</TH>
<TH>Discard</TH>
<TH>H</TH>
<TH>E</TH>
<TH>H/E</TH></TR></THEAD>
<TBODY class="hLeft vTop">
<TR class=none>
<TD rowSpan=2>Bottom set net</TD>
<TD><EM>Chelonia mydas</EM> (65)</TD>
<TD>29</TD>
<TD>60</TD>
<TD>11</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>100</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>0·564</TD>
<TD>2·78 ± 1·8</TD>
<TD>321 (239–395)</TD>
<TD>193 (143–237)</TD>
<TD>94 (70–116)</TD>
<TD>35 (26–43)</TD>
<TD>129</TD></TR>
<TR class=none>
<TD><EM>Lepidochelys olivacea</EM> (1)</TD>
<TD>100</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>100</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>0·026</TD>
<TD>1</TD>
<TD>47 (25–61)</TD>
<TD>0</TD>
<TD>47 (25–61)</TD>
<TD>0</TD>
<TD>47</TD></TR>
<TR class=none>
<TD rowSpan=4>Driftnet</TD>
<TD><EM>C. mydas</EM> (90)</TD>
<TD>10</TD>
<TD>81</TD>
<TD>6</TD>
<TD>3</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>100</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>0·213</TD>
<TD>1·15 ± 0·2</TD>
<TD>881 (868–903)</TD>
<TD>723 (712–741)</TD>
<TD>88 (78–89)</TD>
<TD>79 (78–81)</TD>
<TD>167</TD></TR>
<TR class=none>
<TD><EM>L. olivacea</EM> (7)</TD>
<TD>14</TD>
<TD>72</TD>
<TD>14</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>100</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>0·017</TD>
<TD>1</TD>
<TD>60 (55–63)</TD>
<TD>43 (40–45)</TD>
<TD>9 (8–9)</TD>
<TD>9 (8–9)</TD>
<TD>18</TD></TR>
<TR class=none>
<TD><EM>Caretta caretta</EM> (1)</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>100</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>100</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>0·003</TD>
<TD>1</TD>
<TD>15 (10–22)</TD>
<TD>0</TD>
<TD>0</TD>
<TD>15 (5–15)</TD>
<TD>15</TD></TR>
<TR class=none>
<TD><EM>Dermochelys coriacea</EM> (5)</TD>
<TD>20</TD>
<TD>80</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>100</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>0·012</TD>
<TD>1</TD>
<TD>40 (37–44)</TD>
<TD>32 (30–35)</TD>
<TD>8 (7–9)</TD>
<TD>0</TD>
<TD>8</TD></TR>
<TR class=none>
<TD rowSpan=4>Longline (dolphin fish)</TD>
<TD><EM>C. mydas</EM> (135)</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>100</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>54</TD>
<TD>41</TD>
<TD>4</TD>
<TD>0·155</TD>
<TD>1·3 ± 0·2</TD>
<TD>1061 (801–1313)</TD>
<TD>1061 (801–1313)</TD>
<TD>0</TD>
<TD>0</TD>
<TD>0</TD></TR>
<TR class=none>
<TD><EM>L. olivacea</EM> (16)</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>94</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>6</TD>
<TD>56</TD>
<TD>44</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>0·026</TD>
<TD>1</TD>
<TD>133 (116–158)</TD>
<TD>125</TD>
<TD>0</TD>
<TD>8 (7–10)</TD>
<TD>8</TD></TR>
<TR class=none>
<TD><EM>C. caretta</EM> (272)</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>100</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>52</TD>
<TD>46</TD>
<TD>2</TD>
<TD>0·391</TD>
<TD>1·42 ± 0·2</TD>
<TD>2613 (2104–3066)</TD>
<TD>2613 (2104–3066)</TD>
<TD>0</TD>
<TD>0</TD>
<TD>0</TD></TR>
<TR class=none>
<TD><EM>D. coriacea</EM> (1)</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>100</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>100</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>0·002</TD>
<TD>1</TD>
<TD>6 (3–9)</TD>
<TD>6 (3–9)</TD>
<TD>0</TD>
<TD>0</TD>
<TD>0</TD></TR>
<TR class=none>
<TD rowSpan=4>Longline (shark)</TD>
<TD><EM>C. mydas</EM> (44)</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>98</TD>
<TD>2</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>45</TD>
<TD>52</TD>
<TD>2</TD>
<TD>0·055</TD>
<TD>1·14 ± 0·1</TD>
<TD>131 (100–163)</TD>
<TD>128 (98–159)</TD>
<TD>0</TD>
<TD>3 (2–4)</TD>
<TD>3</TD></TR>
<TR class=none>
<TD><EM>L. olivacea</EM> (2)</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>100</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>50</TD>
<TD>50</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>0·003</TD>
<TD>1</TD>
<TD>7 (5–9)</TD>
<TD>7 (5–9)</TD>
<TD>0</TD>
<TD>0</TD>
<TD>0</TD></TR>
<TR class=none>
<TD><EM>C. caretta</EM> (140)</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>100</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>33</TD>
<TD>66</TD>
<TD>1</TD>
<TD>0·155</TD>
<TD>1·23 ± 0·2</TD>
<TD>589 (545–646)</TD>
<TD>589 (545–646)</TD>
<TD>0</TD>
<TD>0</TD>
<TD>0</TD></TR>
<TR class=none>
<TD><EM>D. coriacea</EM> (11)</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>100</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>27</TD>
<TD>55</TD>
<TD>18</TD>
<TD>0·015</TD>
<TD>1</TD>
<TD>26 (24–27)</TD>
<TD>26 (24–27)</TD>
<TD>0</TD>
<TD>0</TD>
<TD>0</TD></TR>
<TR class=none>
<TD>Totals</TD>
<TD> </TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>5930</TD>
<TD>5546</TD>
<TD>246</TD>
<TD>149</TD>
<TD>395</TD></TR></TBODY></TABLE></DIV></DIV>
<DIV id=ss9 class=section>
<H4>Bycatch Rates</H4>
<DIV class=para>
<P>The proportion of bycatch-positive sets and mean species-specific BPUE showed
a marked variation among the fisheries (<A class=tableLink title="Link to table"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#t2"
shape=rect rel=references:#t2><FONT color=#007e8a>Table 2</FONT></A>).
Particularly notable are the high proportion of bycatch-positive sets and high
BPUE for green turtles in the bottom set nets at Constante (56%;
2·78 turtle per set) and for loggerhead turtles in the dolphinfish longline
fleet (39%; 1·42 turtles per set). Table S1 in Supporting information
shows other units of BPUE (per km, per 1000 hooks). Table S2 in Supporting
information has the monthly BPUE per species at the nets and longlines fisheries
sampled.</P></DIV></DIV>
<DIV id=ss10 class=section>
<H4>Estimated Annual Bycatch</H4>
<DIV class=para>
<P><A class=tableLink title="Link to table"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#t2"
shape=rect rel=references:#t2><FONT color=#007e8a>Table 2</FONT></A> shows
the estimated average annual bycatch of turtles over the years sampled for our
study harbours and fisheries. The dolphinfish longline fishery shows the highest
value of mean annual estimated bycatch of turtles, followed by the driftnets,
shark longlines and, finally, the bottom set nets. Based upon the shore-based
observer data from these three ports and the BPUE estimated from the observed
trips, the sum of the annual estimated bycatch by these four fisheries is
<EM>c.</EM> 5900 turtles (<A class=tableLink title="Link to table"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#t2"
shape=rect rel=references:#t2><FONT color=#007e8a>Table 2</FONT></A>).
Mortality rates differed among the fisheries, with nets showing the highest
direct mortality, augmented by the retention of turtles for consumption, leading
to overall mortality rates of 41% and 18·3% for bottom nets and driftnets,
respectively. Conversely, in the longline fisheries, low numbers of turtles were
observed dead or retained for further use (<0·5%) (<A class=tableLink
title="Link to table"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#t2"
shape=rect rel=references:#t2><FONT color=#007e8a>Table 2</FONT></A>). We
estimated a total of 395 turtles killed: those caught dead (149) plus live
individuals retained (246).</P></DIV></DIV>
<DIV id=ss11 class=section>
<H4>Size Classes and State of Maturity</H4>
<DIV class=para>
<P>We obtained CCL measurements for 619 turtles (76·7% of the total) allowing us
to estimate the state of maturity inferred by the carapace length of the
individuals captured. While we recognize there are several ways to categorize
turtles into age classes, we used the minimum size of nesting females to
differentiate between juveniles and possible adults. For green turtles, the mean
CCL of captured animals was 58·7 ± 8·5 cm (40·5–88·8,
<EM>n</EM> = 281). Given that the majority of the green turtles in
Peru correspond genetically to the rookeries in the Galapagos (<A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b66"
shape=rect rel=references:#b66 jQuery1320197479327="69"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Velez-Zuazo & Kelez 2010</FONT></A>), we used the minimum size
of females nesting at Galapagos (60·7 cm CCL, <A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b74"
shape=rect rel=references:#b74 jQuery1320197479327="70"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Zarate, Fernie & Dutton 2003</FONT></A>) to estimate that
34·5% of the individuals captured were possible adults (60·7–88·8 cm). The
mean CCL of leatherback turtles captured was 139·6 ± 17·45 cm
(115–160, <EM>n</EM> = 7). The minimum CCL of nesting females is
123 cm (Costa Rica), 131 cm (Mexico) and 145·1 cm Papua New
Guinea (<A class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b64"
shape=rect rel=references:#b64 jQuery1320197479327="71"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Stewart, Johnson & Godfrey 2007</FONT></A>) suggesting as many
as 71·4% could be categorized as possible adults.</P></DIV>
<DIV class=para>
<P>Of the 24 olive ridley turtles measured, the mean CCL was
59·2 ± 9·3 cm (42–75·5). Minimum carapace length of females
nesting in the Pacific rockeries of Costa Rica is 54 cm (<A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b52"
shape=rect rel=references:#b52 jQuery1320197479327="72"><FONT color=#007e8a>NMFS
& USFWS 1998</FONT></A>), suggesting that 66·7% of animals captured were
near adult size. For loggerhead turtles, the mean CCL was
57·2 ± 9·2 cm (35·9–86·3, <EM>n</EM> = 307). Using the
size categories determined by <A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b44"
shape=rect rel=references:#b44 jQuery1320197479327="73"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Limpus & Limpus (2003b)</FONT></A>, based upon long-term
laparoscopy analyses in the corresponding stock(s) in the western Pacific
(Australia), we determined that 91·5% of the loggerheads obtained in our study
were juveniles, 8·1% were prepubescents and 0·3% were adult-sized
individuals.</P></DIV></DIV></DIV>
<DIV id=ss12 class=section sizcache="14" sizset="1">
<DIV class=headingCont>There is growing concern that SSF are impacting turtle
populations worldwide (<A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b40"
shape=rect rel=references:#b40 jQuery1320197479327="74"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Lewison & Crowder 2007</FONT></A>; <A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b62"
shape=rect rel=references:#b62 jQuery1320197479327="75"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Soykan <EM>et al.</EM> 2008</FONT></A>; <A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b68"
shape=rect rel=references:#b68 jQuery1320197479327="76"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Wallace <EM>et al.</EM> 2010a</FONT></A>). Our work provides
support for this assertion. The bycatch rates reported here for gillnets are
among the highest in the world (<A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b68"
shape=rect rel=references:#b68 jQuery1320197479327="77"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Wallace <EM>et al.</EM> 2010a</FONT></A>). Given the level of
interaction with multiple non-target species, and the amount of nets deployed
each year in Peru (<A class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b5"
shape=rect rel=references:#b5 jQuery1320197479327="78"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Alfaro-Shigueto <EM>et al.</EM> 2010</FONT></A>) and
elsewhere in the eastern Pacific (<A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b6"
shape=rect rel=references:#b6 jQuery1320197479327="79"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Alvarez 2003</FONT></A>), there is a clear need for urgent
attention to SSF gillnets (i.e. driftnets, trammelnets, bottom set nets). As for
the longline fisheries sampled, the highest bycatch rate was reported for the
dolphinfish longline fishery (1·42 loggerhead turtles per set). This bycatch
rate was lower than those reported by other studies in small-scale longlines for
the eastern Pacific (e.g. Ecuador: <A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b39"
shape=rect rel=references:#b39 jQuery1320197479327="80"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Largacha <EM>et al.</EM> 2005</FONT></A>; Baja California: <A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b53"
shape=rect rel=references:#b53 jQuery1320197479327="81"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Peckham <EM>et al.</EM> 2007</FONT></A>). However, given the
magnitude and rate of expansion of longlines in Peru in the last decade (<A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b5"
shape=rect rel=references:#b5 jQuery1320197479327="82"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Alfaro-Shigueto <EM>et al.</EM> 2010</FONT></A>), there is
clearly a need to take steps to further investigate the impacts of this growing
fishery. We are now using rapid assessments methods (<A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b48"
shape=rect rel=references:#b48 jQuery1320197479327="83"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Moore <EM>et al.</EM> 2010</FONT></A>) elsewhere in Peru and
in neighbouring Ecuador and Chile to address the impacts of longlines and
gillnets at wider geographic scales.</DIV>
<DIV class=para>
<P>For longline fisheries, we recorded 635 turtles captured with an effort of
<EM>c.</EM> 900 000 hooks. The annual effort for small-scale longline
fisheries in Peru is estimated at 80 million hooks (<A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b5"
shape=rect rel=references:#b5 jQuery1320197479327="84"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Alfaro-Shigueto <EM>et al.</EM> 2010</FONT></A>). For net
fisheries, we observed 838·3 km of nets set in which 172 turtles were
caught. This compares with <EM>c.</EM> 100 000 km of nets deployed per
annum nationwide (<A class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b5"
shape=rect rel=references:#b5 jQuery1320197479327="85"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Alfaro-Shigueto <EM>et al.</EM> 2010</FONT></A>). We feel
therefore, although species breakdowns may vary across ports and gears, that
there is a strong possibility that turtle bycatch could be at least one order of
magnitude greater and likely numbers in the tens of thousands per annum with
appreciable proportions, at least in some sites and fisheries, being retained
for consumption. This sizeable take suggests that the protective legal status of
turtles in Peru may have had a limited effect at reducing turtle take. The same
lack of effectiveness has been observed for the banning of the marine mammal
fishery in Peru (<A class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b46"
shape=rect rel=references:#b46 jQuery1320197479327="86"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Mangel <EM>et al.</EM> 2010</FONT></A>) and highlights
enforcement of legislation as a key challenge in the management of SSF (<A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b58"
shape=rect rel=references:#b58 jQuery1320197479327="87"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Salas <EM>et al.</EM> 2007</FONT></A>).</P></DIV>
<DIV class=para>
<P>When compared with other research in the Pacific, our data allow us to
contextualize the likely impacts to the breeding stocks of origin for sea
turtles in Peruvian waters (<A class=figureLink title="Link to figure"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#f2"
shape=rect rel=references:#f2><FONT color=#007e8a>Fig. 2</FONT></A>). A
particular cause for concern is here identified for the leatherback turtles,
where both western and eastern Pacific stocks may be impacted (<A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b24"
shape=rect rel=references:#b24 jQuery1320197479327="88"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Eckert & Sarti 1997</FONT></A>; <A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b61"
shape=rect rel=references:#b61 jQuery1320197479327="89"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Shillinger <EM>et al.</EM> 2008</FONT></A>; <A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b23"
shape=rect rel=references:#b23 jQuery1320197479327="90"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Dutton <EM>et al.</EM> 2010</FONT></A>), and the majority of
turtles affected are large individuals likely to be those of higher reproductive
value (<A class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b19"
shape=rect rel=references:#b19 jQuery1320197479327="91"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Crowder <EM>et al.</EM> 1994</FONT></A>; <A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b67"
shape=rect rel=references:#b67 jQuery1320197479327="92"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Wallace <EM>et al.</EM> 2008</FONT></A>). Although mortality
from retention for human use may be low, any impact may be important (<A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b21"
shape=rect rel=references:#b21 jQuery1320197479327="93"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Donoso & Dutton 2010</FONT></A>) if it is widespread given the
prevailing population decline for this species, especially in the eastern
Pacific where current annual nesting females number in the low hundreds (<A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b63"
shape=rect rel=references:#b63 jQuery1320197479327="94"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Spotila <EM>et al.</EM> 2000</FONT></A>; <A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b59"
shape=rect rel=references:#b59 jQuery1320197479327="95"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Sarti-Martinez <EM>et al.</EM> 2007</FONT></A>).</P></DIV>
<DIV id=f2 class="figure hh" sizcache="14" sizset="1">
<DIV id=f2_caption class=caption sizcache="14" sizset="1">
<P sizcache="14" sizset="1"><SPAN class=label><STRONG>Figure 2.
</STRONG></SPAN> Schematic view of linkages of turtles breeding stocks to
Peruvian foraging grounds. Leatherback turtles (<SPAN id=fu1 sizcache="14"
sizset="1"><IMG class=inlineGraphic alt="inline image"
src="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/store/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/asset/image_n/JPE_2040_fu1.gif?v=1&t=guhnhjcv&s=529e1469efb05e474d01c526f5c5b87fe688b420"></SPAN>):
western and eastern Pacific rockeries (<A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b24"
shape=rect rel=references:#b24 jQuery1320197479327="96"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Eckert & Sarti 1997</FONT></A>; <A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b61"
shape=rect rel=references:#b61 jQuery1320197479327="97"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Shillinger <EM>et al.</EM> 2008</FONT></A>; <A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b23"
shape=rect rel=references:#b23 jQuery1320197479327="98"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Dutton <EM>et al.</EM> 2010</FONT></A>). Olive ridleys (<SPAN
id=fu2 sizcache="14" sizset="2"><IMG class=inlineGraphic alt="inline image"
src="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/store/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/asset/image_n/JPE_2040_fu2.gif?v=1&t=guhnhjcx&s=b3d698626549423fa17fdb8fb2396007caa57b64"></SPAN>):
Colombia, Mexico and Costa Rica (<A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b75"
shape=rect rel=references:#b75 jQuery1320197479327="99"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Zeballos & Arias-Schreiber 2001</FONT></A>; <A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b66"
shape=rect rel=references:#b66 jQuery1320197479327="100"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Velez-Zuazo & Kelez 2010</FONT></A>). Green turtles (<SPAN
id=fu3 sizcache="14" sizset="3"><IMG class=inlineGraphic alt="inline image"
src="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/store/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/asset/image_n/JPE_2040_fu3.gif?v=1&t=guhnhjcy&s=6aa65f59f287d747314c70a71f43983c45c0f463"></SPAN>):
Galapagos Islands and Mexico (<A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b36"
shape=rect rel=references:#b36 jQuery1320197479327="101"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Hays-Brown & Brown 1982</FONT></A>; <A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b66"
shape=rect rel=references:#b66 jQuery1320197479327="102"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Velez-Zuazo & Kelez 2010</FONT></A>). Loggerhead turtles
(<SPAN id=fu4 sizcache="14" sizset="4"><IMG class=inlineGraphic
alt="inline image"
src="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/store/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/asset/image_n/JPE_2040_fu4.gif?v=1&t=guhnhjd0&s=c8876d7c3faebb3309d431507a23542b520a12df"></SPAN>):
Australia and New Caledonia (<A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b2"
shape=rect rel=references:#b2 jQuery1320197479327="103"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Alfaro-Shigueto <EM>et al.</EM> 2004</FONT></A>; <A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b11"
shape=rect rel=references:#b11 jQuery1320197479327="104"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Boyle <EM>et al.</EM> 2009</FONT></A>). Hawksbill turtles
(<SPAN id=fu5 sizcache="14" sizset="5"><IMG class=inlineGraphic
alt="inline image"
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Mainland Ecuador as the closest nesting rockery for the species.</P>
<P class=downloadToPowerpoint><A
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<DIV class=para>
<P>Loggerhead turtles from Australia/New Caledonia, the breeding stock impacted
in Peru (<A class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b11"
shape=rect rel=references:#b11 jQuery1320197479327="105"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Boyle <EM>et al.</EM> 2009</FONT></A>), have also experienced
a decline over the last several decades (<A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b43"
shape=rect rel=references:#b43 jQuery1320197479327="106"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Limpus & Limpus 2003a</FONT></A>). Our data show that
loggerheads are the main species captured in SSF longliners in southern Peru.
Although this constitutes large numbers, most are captured alive and released.
Nevertheless, limited information on the post-release mortality rate and the
possible cumulative impacts of multiple captures complicates any attempts to
fully understand the impact of this fishery (<A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b47"
shape=rect rel=references:#b47 jQuery1320197479327="107"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Mangel <EM>et al.</EM> in press</FONT></A>). As for green and
olive ridley turtles, tag recoveries and genetic sampling show that the stocks
impacted are from within the eastern Pacific. Of concern is the fact that both
species were incidentally caught in all four fisheries and thus may be suffering
impacts throughout Peru.</P></DIV>
<DIV class=para>
<P>Bushmeat is a term generally used to describe the use of terrestrial wild
animals for subsistence or commerce (<A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b73"
shape=rect rel=references:#b73 jQuery1320197479327="108"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Wilkie & Godoy 2001</FONT></A>). The term ‘marine bushmeat’
has been applied to the use of marine fauna by coastal inhabitants (<A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b1"
shape=rect rel=references:#b1 jQuery1320197479327="109"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Alfaro-Shigueto & Van Waerebeek 2001</FONT></A>; <A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b18"
shape=rect rel=references:#b18 jQuery1320197479327="110"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Clapham & Van Waerebeek 2007</FONT></A>) and is used here to
describe the retention of live or dead turtles to be consumed or commercialized
locally. Gillnet fishers in our study retained up to 30% of live turtles to be
used as bushmeat. Very few other bycatch studies have detailed the use or
retention of incidentally captured turtles for consumption (<A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b3"
shape=rect rel=references:#b3 jQuery1320197479327="111"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Alfaro-Shigueto <EM>et al.</EM> 2007</FONT></A>; <A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b54"
shape=rect rel=references:#b54 jQuery1320197479327="112"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Peckham <EM>et al.</EM> 2008</FONT></A>; <A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b15"
shape=rect rel=references:#b15 jQuery1320197479327="113"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Casale 2010</FONT></A>). <A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b12"
shape=rect rel=references:#b12 jQuery1320197479327="114"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Brashares <EM>et al.</EM> (2004)</FONT></A> described the
correlation between the uses of terrestrial wildlife and of marine resources. In
Peru, where most impoverished coastal communities rely almost exclusively on
fisheries products as their main protein source, the use of marine bushmeat as a
food supply, including in some cases seabirds, sea turtles and small cetaceans,
has long occurred (<A class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b57"
shape=rect rel=references:#b57 jQuery1320197479327="115"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Reitz 2001</FONT></A>) and continues (<A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b36"
shape=rect rel=references:#b36 jQuery1320197479327="116"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Hays-Brown & Brown 1982</FONT></A>; <A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b8"
shape=rect rel=references:#b8 jQuery1320197479327="117"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Awkerman <EM>et al.</EM> 2006</FONT></A>; <A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b46"
shape=rect rel=references:#b46 jQuery1320197479327="118"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Mangel <EM>et al.</EM> 2010</FONT></A>). It is clear
therefore that bycatch research should account for this use, which could lead to
alternative recommendations for management and mitigation such as alternative
food sources or conservation incentives (<A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b30"
shape=rect rel=references:#b30 jQuery1320197479327="119"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Ferraro & Gjertsen 2009</FONT></A>).</P></DIV>
<DIV class=para>
<P>Current efforts to reduce bycatch of marine threatened fauna include the use
of mitigation measures (<A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b45"
shape=rect rel=references:#b45 jQuery1320197479327="120"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Løkkeborg & Robertson 2002</FONT></A>; <A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b9"
shape=rect rel=references:#b9 jQuery1320197479327="121"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Barlow & Cameron 2003</FONT></A>; <A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b34"
shape=rect rel=references:#b34 jQuery1320197479327="122"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Gilman <EM>et al.</EM> 2010</FONT></A>; <A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b71"
shape=rect rel=references:#b71 jQuery1320197479327="123"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Ward <EM>et al.</EM> 2008</FONT></A>), fisheries closures
(e.g. UN General Assembly Resolution 46/215; CMC versus NMFS: C.V. No. 99-00152)
and the creation of marine protected areas (<A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b27"
shape=rect rel=references:#b27 jQuery1320197479327="124"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Fallabrino & López-Mendilaharsu 2008</FONT></A>). The high
discard rate of turtles observed in Peruvian SSF longlines suggests that much of
the bycatch is unwanted and therefore may provide an opportunity to find ways to
reduce turtle bycatch in longlines. Initiatives using circle hooks and dehookers
could be used to reduce hooking rates and severity of injury (<A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b39"
shape=rect rel=references:#b39 jQuery1320197479327="125"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Largacha <EM>et al.</EM> 2005</FONT></A>; <A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b56"
shape=rect rel=references:#b56 jQuery1320197479327="126"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Read 2007</FONT></A>). As for gillnet fisheries, new mitigation
measures, such as net illumination and eliminating floats from main lines, have
recently been trialled (<A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b70"
shape=rect rel=references:#b70 jQuery1320197479327="127"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Wang, Fisler & Swimmer 2010</FONT></A>; <A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b34"
shape=rect rel=references:#b34 jQuery1320197479327="128"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Gilman <EM>et al.</EM> 2010</FONT></A>) and studies of the
applicability of such schemes in the Peruvian SSF are the logical next
step.</P></DIV>
<DIV class=para>
<P>Globally, SSF are important sources of food and employment for millions of
coastal inhabitants (<A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b28"
shape=rect rel=references:#b28 jQuery1320197479327="129"><FONT color=#007e8a>FAO
2005</FONT></A>; <A class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b17"
shape=rect rel=references:#b17 jQuery1320197479327="130"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Chuenpagdee <EM>et al.</EM> 2006</FONT></A>). In the
south-eastern Pacific region in particular, SSF constitute the majority of the
fishers and fisheries (<A class=referenceLink
title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b6"
shape=rect rel=references:#b6 jQuery1320197479327="131"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Alvarez 2003</FONT></A>), and thus, it is important to recognize
the need to promote their sustainability and minimize their environmental
impacts. Our work here mandates that special efforts be paid to reducing bycatch
of key species such as leatherback, loggerhead and green turtles. Bycatch of
these taxa adds to previously described impacts on marine mammals (<A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b46"
shape=rect rel=references:#b46 jQuery1320197479327="132"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Mangel <EM>et al.</EM> 2010</FONT></A>) and seabirds (<A
class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b8"
shape=rect rel=references:#b8 jQuery1320197479327="133"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Awkerman <EM>et al.</EM> 2006</FONT></A>). It is clear that
for sea turtles, there is a profound potential for SSF in the eastern Pacific to
act as a population sink, negating positive initiatives being undertaken
elsewhere in the region. The identification of low-cost/high-benefit grassroots
initiatives in the region (e.g. fishing community co-management using trained
fishermen: <A class=referenceLink title="Link to bibliographic citation"
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/full#b35"
shape=rect rel=references:#b35 jQuery1320197479327="134"><FONT
color=#007e8a>Gutiérrez, Hilborn & Defeo 2011</FONT></A>) may contribute to
ensuring the recovery of imperilled turtle populations in the Pacific.</P>
<P>We thank the members of the fishing communities who participated in this
study, in particular the fishers who were willing to have an observer onboard.
We thank Dr. Rebecca Lewison, Dr. Bryan Wallace and the editor for their helpful
comments on the manuscript. We acknowledge Pro Delphinus staff: Caceres,
Pajuelo, Cuentas, Montes and Mamani, for their help in data collection. This
study was conducted with funds received from NOAA SWFSC (PO40JGNF000275,
PO40JGNF000415, PO40JGNF056132, AB133F-03-SE-1199 and AB133F-05-SE-4937), NFWF
(2001-0013-004, 2002-0084-007, 2003-0121-004 and 2008-0064-007), the Oak
Foundation through the CMC at Duke University and the Darwin Initiative
Sustainable Artisanal Fisheries Initiative in Peru. JCM and JAS are ORSAS and
Exeter University scholarship awardees, respectively.</P></DIV></DIV>
<DIV class=headingCont><FONT
size=3><STRONG> References</STRONG></FONT></DIV>
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shape=rect><FONT color=#007e8a>Abstract</FONT></A>
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<DIV class=headingCont>
<H3>Supporting Information</H3></DIV>
<DIV class=para>
<P><B>Appendix S1.</B> Supplemental methods. Equation to estimate Bycatch per
unit of effort (BPUE) and mean estimated catch of turtles.</P></DIV>
<DIV class=para>
<P><B>Table S1.</B> Other units of BPUE: Mean BPUE per trip, BPUE per km for
bottom set nets and driftnets. BPUE per trip and BPUE per 10<SUP><FONT
size=1>3</FONT></SUP> hooks for dolphinfish and sharks longliners.
Confidence intervals and low and high values are given for all turtle species
(overall) and by species.</P></DIV>
<DIV class=para>
<P><B>Table S2.</B> BPUE per set values given per month by fishery and by
species, number of sets (No. sets) and number of sets with bycatch
(set+).</P></DIV>
<DIV class=para>
<P>As a service to our authors and readers, this journal provides supporting
information supplied by the authors. Such materials may be re-organized for
online delivery, but are not copy-edited or typeset. Technical support issues
arising from supporting information (other than missing files) should be
addressed to the authors.</P></DIV>
<DIV>
<TABLE class=supportingInformation>
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<TH id=articleFilename>Filename</TH>
<TH id=articleFormat>Format</TH>
<TH id=articleSize>Size</TH>
<TH id=articleDescription>Description</TH></TR></THEAD>
<TBODY>
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href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/store/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/asset/supinfo/JPE_2040_sm_BrendanGodleyM1.pdf?v=1&s=a9e3ecb5f9913e5aff020f3b49d9da97e03e6295"
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<TD headers=articleSize>6K</TD>
<TD headers=articleDescription>Supporting info item</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD headers=articleFilename><A
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/store/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/asset/supinfo/JPE_2040_sm_TableS1.pdf?v=1&s=335f43cb398562a9b206bbc702c17b93c861ef1b"
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<TD headers=articleFormat><STRONG><FONT color=#007e8a></FONT></STRONG></TD>
<TD headers=articleSize>106K</TD>
<TD headers=articleDescription>Supporting info item</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD headers=articleFilename><A
href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/store/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02040.x/asset/supinfo/JPE_2040_sm_TableS2.pdf?v=1&s=58553df09a4d41a64274314e3bdd2c6a8aae6f1d"
shape=rect><STRONG><FONT
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<TD headers=articleFormat><STRONG><FONT color=#007e8a></FONT></STRONG></TD>
<TD headers=articleSize>121K</TD>
<TD headers=articleDescription>Supporting
</TD></TR></TBODY></TABLE></DIV></DIV></DIV></DIV></DIV></FONT></DIV></BODY></HTML>